51
|
Jiao X, Liu W, Mahdessian H, Bryant P, Ringdahl J, Timofeeva M, Farrington SM, Dunlop M, Lindblom A. Recurrent, low-frequency coding variants contributing to colorectal cancer in the Swedish population. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193547. [PMID: 29547645 PMCID: PMC5856271 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified dozens of common genetic variants associated with risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the majority of CRC heritability remains unclear. In order to discover low-frequency, high-risk CRC susceptibility variants in Swedish population, we genotyped 1 515 CRC patients enriched for familial cases, and 12 108 controls. Case/control association analysis suggested eight novel variants associated with CRC risk (OR 2.0-17.6, p-value < 2.0E-07), comprised of seven coding variants in genes RAB11FIP5, POTEA, COL27A1, MUC5B, PSMA8, MYH7B, and PABPC1L as well as one variant downstream of NEU1 gene. We also confirmed 27 out of 30 risk variants previously reported from GWAS in CRC with a mixed European population background. This study identified rare, coding sequence variants associated with CRC risk through analysis in a relatively homogeneous population. The segregation data suggest a complex mode of inheritance in seemingly dominant pedigrees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Jiao
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Wen Liu
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hovsep Mahdessian
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Patrick Bryant
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jenny Ringdahl
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Timofeeva
- Colon Cancer Genetics Group, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Susan M. Farrington
- Colon Cancer Genetics Group, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm Dunlop
- Colon Cancer Genetics Group, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Annika Lindblom
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Anlotinib inhibits angiogenesis via suppressing the activation of VEGFR2, PDGFRβ and FGFR1. Gene 2018; 654:77-86. [PMID: 29454091 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells recruit vascular endothelial cells and circulating endothelial progenitor cells to form new vessels to support their own growth and metastasis. VEGF, PDGF-BB and FGF-2 are three major pro-angiogenic factors and applied to promote angiogenesis. In this research, we demonstrated that anlotinib, a potent multi-tyrosine kinases inhibitor (TKI), showed a significant inhibitory effect on VEGF/PDGF-BB/FGF-2-induced angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Wound healing assay, chamber directional migration assay and tube formation assay indicated that anlotinib inhibited VEGF/PDGF-BB/FGF-2-induced cell migration and formation of capillary-like tubes in endothelial cells. Furthermore, anlotinib suppressed blood vessels sprout and microvessel density in rat aortic ring assay and chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Importantly, according to our study, the anti-angiogenic effect of anlotinib is superior to sunitinib, sorafenib and nintedanib, which are three main anti-angiogenesis drugs in clinic. Mechanistically, anlotinib inhibits the activation of VEGFR2, PDGFRβ and FGFR1 as well their common downstream ERK signaling. Therefore, anlotinib is a potential agent to inhibit angiogenesis and be applied to tumor therapy.
Collapse
|
53
|
Akasov R, Haq S, Haxho F, Samuel V, Burov SV, Markvicheva E, Neufeld RJ, Szewczuk MR. Sialylation transmogrifies human breast and pancreatic cancer cells into 3D multicellular tumor spheroids using cyclic RGD-peptide induced self-assembly. Oncotarget 2018; 7:66119-66134. [PMID: 27608845 PMCID: PMC5323220 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multicellular tumor spheroids (MTS) have been at the forefront of cancer research, designed to mimic tumor-like developmental patterns in vitro. Tumor growth in vivo is highly influenced by aberrant cell surface-specific sialoglycan structures on glycoproteins. Aberrant sialoglycan patterns that facilitate MTS formation are not well defined. Matrix-free spheroids from breast MCF-7 and pancreatic PANC1 cancer cell lines and their respective tamoxifen (TMX) and gemcitabine (Gem) resistant variants were generated using the RGD platform of cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp-D-Phe-Lys peptide modified with 4-carboxybutyl-triphenylphosphonium bromide (cyclo-RGDfK (TPP)). MCF-7 and MCF-7 TMX cells formed tight spheroids both in the classical agarose-and RGD-based platforms while all PANC1 cells formed loose aggregates. Using lectin histochemistry staining, sialidase assay, neuraminidase (Vibrio cholerae) and oseltamivir phosphate (OP) neuraminidase inhibitor treatments, MCF-7 and PANC1 cells and their drug-resistant variants expressed different sialic acid (SA) content on their cell surfaces. α-2,3- and α-2,6-sialic acid surface residues facilitated spheroid formation under cyclo-RGDfK(TPP)-induced self-assembly. Pretreatment with α-2,3- SA specific Maackia amurensis (MAL-II) lectin, α-2,6-SA specific Sambucus nigra (SNA) lectin, and exogenous α-2,6-SA specific neuraminidase (Vibrio cholerae) dose-dependently reduced spheroid volume. OP enhanced cell aggregation and compaction forming spheroids. PANC1 and MDA-MB231 xenograft tumors from untreated and OP-treated RAGxCγ double mutant mice expressed significantly higher levels of α-2,3- SA over α-2,6-SA. MCF-7 spheroids also expressed a high α-2,3-SA to α-2,6-SA ratio. These results suggest that the relative levels of specific sialoglycan structures on the cell surface correlate with the ability of cancer cells to form avascular multicellular tumor spheroids and in vivo xenograft tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roman Akasov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sabah Haq
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Fiona Haxho
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Vanessa Samuel
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Sergey V Burov
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Petersburg, 119004 Russia
| | - Elena Markvicheva
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ronald J Neufeld
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Myron R Szewczuk
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Wood K, Szewczuk MR, Rousseau D, Neufeld RJ. Oseltamivir phosphate released from injectable Pickering emulsions over an extended term disables human pancreatic cancer cell survival. Oncotarget 2018; 9:12754-12768. [PMID: 29560107 PMCID: PMC5849171 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.24339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Pickering emulsions are colloidal dispersions stabilized by particles that either migrate to, or are formed at, the oil-water interface during emulsification. Here, we fabricated and characterized Pickering water-in-oil emulsions where molten glycerol monostearate crystallized at the surface of micron-sized water droplets and formed protective solid shells. We tested this emulsion as a reservoir delivery platform for the sustained release of low molecular weight hydrophilic molecules including sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium citrate as model compounds, and the therapeutic oseltamivir phosphate (OP), the delivery of which was the ultimate goal of this research. The objective was to achieve long-term (30-day) release of challenging to encapsulate actives and ultimately demonstrate the sustained release of OP for 20–30 days from an injectable formulation. OP was used because of its anticancer properties targeting mammalian neuraminidase 1 (Neu1) involved in multistage tumorigenesis. All actives including OP encapsulated in Pickering emulsions displayed a near linear release profile over 30 days. It was demonstrated that the release could be modulated by the addition of a second, competing surfactant sorbitan monooleate, Span 80, to the emulsion at levels above its critical micelle concentration. OP released from the emulsions significantly reduced cell viability in the human PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cell line for up to 30 days. The findings from this study indicate a simple, potentially injectable formulation and method that is easily upscaled resulting in a stable product with the potential to fully retain small hydrophilic molecules/drugs for sustained, near linear release over days, weeks, and potentially months.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Wood
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Myron R Szewczuk
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Dérick Rousseau
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryers on University, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Ronald J Neufeld
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Kaminuma O, Katoh S, Miyagi T, Watanabe N, Kitamura N, Nishimura T, Saeki M, Mori A, Hiroi T. Contribution of neuraminidase 3 to the differentiation of induced regulatory T cells. Genes Cells 2017; 23:112-116. [PMID: 29271120 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Neuraminidase family enzymes that hydrolyze the terminal sialic acid linkage in biomolecules are involved in various immune responses. We previously showed that Th1 and Th2 cells differentially express several neuraminidases. Herein, the expression of neuraminidases in induced regulatory T (iTreg) cells was investigated in comparison with that in other T-cell subsets. Contrary to the tendency toward higher neuraminidase 1 mRNA expression in in vitro-differentiated Th2 cells, compared to Th1, Th17 and iTreg cells, we observed significantly higher expression of neuraminidase 3 (Neu3) in iTreg cells. Furthermore, the expression of Neu3 in FoxP3+ CD62L- spleen cells was higher than that in FoxP3+ CD62L+ and FoxP3- cells. Lentiviral expression of Neu3 in naïve CD4+ T cells during the stimulation culture led to upregulation of FoxP3 expression. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that Neu3 contributes to the differentiation of iTreg cells by upregulation of FoxP3.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Kaminuma
- Center for Life Science Research, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Yamanashi, Japan.,Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Clinical Research Center for Allergy and Rheumatology, National Sagamihara Hospital, Sagamihara, Japan.,Bioresource Center, RIKEN, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Shigeki Katoh
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Taeko Miyagi
- Miyagi Cancer Center Research Institute, Natori, Japan
| | - Nobumasa Watanabe
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriko Kitamura
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoe Nishimura
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Saeki
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Bioresource Center, RIKEN, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Akio Mori
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Clinical Research Center for Allergy and Rheumatology, National Sagamihara Hospital, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Takachika Hiroi
- Allergy and Immunology Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Bilir B, Sharma NV, Lee J, Hammarstrom B, Svindland A, Kucuk O, Moreno CS. Effects of genistein supplementation on genome‑wide DNA methylation and gene expression in patients with localized prostate cancer. Int J Oncol 2017; 51:223-234. [PMID: 28560383 PMCID: PMC5467777 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2017.4017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have shown that dietary compounds have significant effects on prostate carcinogenesis. Among dietary agents, genistein, the major isoflavone in soybean, is of particular interest because high consumption of soy products has been associated with a low incidence of prostate cancer, suggesting a preventive role of genistein in prostate cancer. In spite of numerous studies to understand the effects of genistein on prostate cancer, the mechanisms of action have not been fully elucidated. We investigated the differences in methylation and gene expression levels of prostate specimens from a clinical trial of genistein supplementation prior to prostatectomy using Illumina HumanMethylation450 and Illumina HumanHT-12 v4 Expression BeadChip Microarrays. The present study was a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial on Norwegian patients who received 30 mg genistein or placebo capsules daily for 3–6 weeks before prostatectomy. Gene expression changes were validated by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Whole genome methylation and expression profiling identified differentially methylated sites and expressed genes between placebo and genistein groups. Differentially regulated genes were involved in developmental processes, stem cell markers, proliferation and transcriptional regulation. Enrichment analysis suggested overall reduction in MYC activity and increased PTEN activity in genistein-treated patients. These findings highlight the effects of genistein on global changes in gene expression in prostate cancer and its effects on molecular pathways involved in prostate tumorigenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birdal Bilir
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nitya V Sharma
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeongseok Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bato Hammarstrom
- Department of Urology, Institute of Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Aud Svindland
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Omer Kucuk
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Carlos S Moreno
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Haq S, Samuel V, Haxho F, Akasov R, Leko M, Burov SV, Markvicheva E, Szewczuk MR. Sialylation facilitates self-assembly of 3D multicellular prostaspheres by using cyclo-RGDfK(TPP) peptide. Onco Targets Ther 2017; 10:2427-2447. [PMID: 28496342 PMCID: PMC5422540 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s133563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Prostaspheres-based three dimensional (3D) culture models have provided insight into prostate cancer (PCa) biology, highlighting the importance of cell–cell interactions and the extracellular matrix (EMC) in the tumor microenvironment. Although these 3D classical spheroid platforms provide a significant advance over 2D models mimicking in vivo tumors, the limitations involve no control of assembly and structure with only limited spatial or glandular organization. Here, matrix-free prostaspheres from human metastatic prostate carcinoma PC3 and DU145 cell lines and their respective gemcitabine resistant (GemR) variants were generated by using cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp-D-Phe-Lys peptide modified with 4-carboxybutyl-triphenylphosphonium bromide (cyclo-RGDfK(TPP)). Materials and methods Microscopic imaging, immunocytochemistry (ICC), flow cytometry, sialidase, and WST-1 cell viability assays were used to evaluate the formation of multicellular tumor spheroid (MCTS), cell survival, morphologic changes, and expression levels of α2,6 and α2,3 sialic acid (SA) and E- and N-cadherin in DU145, PC3, and their GemR variants. Results By using the cyclo-RGDfK(TPP) peptide platform in a dose- and time-dependent manner, both DU145 and DU145GemR cells formed small MCTS. In contrast, PC3 and PC3GemR cells formed irregular multicellular aggregates at all concentrations of cyclo-RGDfK(TPP) peptide, even after 6 days of incubation. ICC and flow cytometry results revealed that DU145 cells expressed higher amounts of E-cadherin but lower N-cadherin compared with PC3 cells. By using Maackia amurensis (α2,3-SA-specific MAL-II) and Sambucus nigra (α2,6-SA specific SNA) lectin-based cytochemistry staining and flow cytometry, it was found that DU145 and DU145GemR cells expressed 5 times more α2,6-SA than α2,3-SA on the cell surface. PC3 cells expressed 4 times more α2,3-SA than α2,6-SA, and the PC3GemR cells showed 1.4 times higher α2,6-SA than α2,3-SA. MCTS volume was dose-dependently reduced following pretreatment with α2,6-SA-specific neuraminidase (Vibrio cholerae). Oseltamivir phosphate enhanced cell aggregation and compaction of 3D MCTS formed with PC3 cells. Conclusion The relative levels of specific sialoglycan structures on the cell surface correlate with the ability of PCa cells to form avascular multicellular prostaspheres.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabah Haq
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Vanessa Samuel
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Fiona Haxho
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Roman Akasov
- Polymers for Biology Laboratory, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Moscow
| | - Maria Leko
- Synthesis of Peptides and Polymer Microspheres Laboratory, Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Sergey V Burov
- Synthesis of Peptides and Polymer Microspheres Laboratory, Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Elena Markvicheva
- Polymers for Biology Laboratory, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
| | - Myron R Szewczuk
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Sambi M, Haq S, Samuel V, Qorri B, Haxho F, Hill K, Harless W, Szewczuk MR. Alternative therapies for metastatic breast cancer: multimodal approach targeting tumor cell heterogeneity. BREAST CANCER-TARGETS AND THERAPY 2017; 9:85-93. [PMID: 28280388 PMCID: PMC5340247 DOI: 10.2147/bctt.s130838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
One of the primary challenges in developing effective therapies for malignant tumors is the specific targeting of a heterogeneous cancer cell population within the tumor. The cancerous tumor is made up of a variety of distinct cells with specialized receptors and proteins that could potentially be viable targets for drugs. In addition, the diverse signals from the local microenvironment may also contribute to the induction of tumor growth and metastasis. Collectively, these factors must be strategically studied and targeted in order to develop an effective treatment protocol. Targeted multimodal approaches need to be strategically studied in order to develop a treatment protocol that is successful in controlling tumor growth and preventing metastatic burden. Breast cancer, in particular, presents a unique problem because of the variety of subtypes of cancer that can arise and the multiple drug targets that could be exploited. For example, the tumor stage and subtypes often dictate the appropriate treatment regimen. Alternate multimodal therapies should consider the importance of time-dependent drug administration, as well as targeting the local and systemic tumor environment. Many reviews and papers have briefly touched on the clinical implications of this cellular heterogeneity; however, there has been very little discussion on the development of study models that reflect this diversity and on multimodal therapies that could target these subpopulations. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the origins of intratumoral heterogeneity in breast cancer subtypes, and its implications for tumor progression, metastatic potential, and treatment regimens. We also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing specific breast cancer models for research, including in vitro monolayer systems and three-dimensional mammospheres, as well as in vivo murine models that may have the capacity to encompass this heterogeneity. Lastly, we summarize some of the current advancements in the development of multitarget therapeutics that have shown promising results in clinical and preclinical studies when used alone or in combination with traditional regimens of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manpreet Sambi
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sabah Haq
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Vanessa Samuel
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Bessi Qorri
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Fiona Haxho
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Kelli Hill
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada; ENCYT Technologies, Inc., Membertou, NS, Canada
| | | | - Myron R Szewczuk
- Department of Biomedical and Medical Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|