1
|
Yang H, Wen N, Fan C, Wang F, Zhang Y, Cao L, Zhu S, Hao L, Yan D, Wang L, Song Q, Wang M, Song Y, Ma C, An Z, Rodewald LE, Wang H, Yin Z. Thirty Years of Experience of Acute Flaccid Paralysis Surveillance for Polio - China, 1993-2022. China CDC Wkly 2024; 6:344-349. [PMID: 38736467 PMCID: PMC11082049 DOI: 10.46234/ccdcw2024.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Detecting poliovirus infections proves to be highly challenging due to their asymptomatic nature and infectious potential, highlighting the crucial importance of effective detection methods in the context of polio eradication efforts. In many countries, including China, the primary approach for identifying polio outbreaks has been through acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance. In this study, we conducted an evaluation spanning three decades (1993-2022) to assess the effectiveness of AFP surveillance in China. Methods Data on all AFP cases identified since 1993 and national-level AFP surveillance system quality indicators aligned with the World Health Organization (WHO) standards were collected for analysis. The quality indicators assess surveillance sensitivity, completeness, timeliness of detection notification, case investigation, and laboratory workup. Surveillance sensitivity is determined by the non-polio AFP (NPAFP) detection rate among children under 15 years of age. Results Between 1993 and 2022, a total of 150,779 AFP cases were identified and reported. Within this pool, surveillance identified 95 cases of wild poliovirus (WPV) and 24 cases due to vaccine-derived poliovirus. From 1995 onwards, the detection rate of NPAFP cases consistently adhered to the WHO and national standards of ≥1 case per 100,000, falling between 1.38 and 2.76. Starting in 1997, all timeliness indicators consistently achieved the criteria of 80%, apart from the consistency in meeting standards set for the rate of positive specimens sent to the national laboratory. Conclusions AFP surveillance has been instrumental in China's accomplishment of maintaining a polio-free status. The ongoing adherence to key performance indicators, ensuring sensitivity and prompt specimen collection, demonstrates that AFP surveillance is proficient in detecting poliovirus in China. As we move into the post-eradication phase, AFP surveillance remains crucial for the sustained absence of polioviruses in the long term.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Wen
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Chunxiang Fan
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Fuzhen Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Cao
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Shuangli Zhu
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lixin Hao
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Dongmei Yan
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Quanwei Song
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Miao Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yifan Song
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Ma
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zhijie An
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lance E. Rodewald
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Huaqing Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zundong Yin
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases (NITFID), Beijing, China
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Thompson KM, Kalkowska DA, Routh JA, Brenner IR, Rosenberg ES, Zucker JR, Langdon-Embry M, Sugerman DE, Burns CC, Badizadegan K. Modeling Poliovirus Transmission and Responses in New York State. J Infect Dis 2024; 229:1097-1106. [PMID: 37596838 PMCID: PMC11284859 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In July 2022, New York State (NYS) reported a case of paralytic polio in an unvaccinated young adult, and subsequent wastewater surveillance confirmed sustained local transmission of type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV2) in NYS with genetic linkage to the paralyzed patient. METHODS We adapted an established poliovirus transmission and oral poliovirus vaccine evolution model to characterize dynamics of poliovirus transmission in NYS, including consideration of the immunization activities performed as part of the declared state of emergency. RESULTS Despite sustained transmission of imported VDPV2 in NYS involving potentially thousands of individuals (depending on seasonality, population structure, and mixing assumptions) in 2022, the expected number of additional paralytic cases in years 2023 and beyond is small (less than 0.5). However, continued transmission and/or reintroduction of poliovirus into NYS and other populations remains a possible risk in communities that do not achieve and maintain high immunization coverage. CONCLUSIONS In countries such as the United States that use only inactivated poliovirus vaccine, even with high average immunization coverage, imported polioviruses may circulate and pose a small but nonzero risk of causing paralysis in nonimmune individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Janell A Routh
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - I Ravi Brenner
- Office of Public Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Eli S Rosenberg
- Office of Public Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Jane R Zucker
- New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, New York, New York, USA
- Immunization Services Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - David E Sugerman
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Cara C Burns
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Yin Q, Zheng Y, Ying Z, Li J, Jiang Y, Bao W, Dou Y, Pu Y, Lei J, Yang H, Jiang R, Deng Y, Zhao Z, Pu J, Yang J, Li Y, Xu M, Cai W, Che Y, Shi L. Immunogenicity and lot-to-lot consistency of booster shot with Sabin inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine in Chinese children aged 18-24 Months: A phase Ⅳ clinical trial. Vaccine 2024; 42:1973-1979. [PMID: 38388236 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There has been no data on the immunogenicity and safety of the 4th booster dose of the sIPV immunization in 18-24 months old children in post-marketing studies of large cohort providing with robust results. METHOD In a phase Ⅳ randomized, double-blinded clinical trial, 1200 participants aged 2 months were immunized with three consecutive doses of sIPV at 2, 3, and 4 months old to complete primary immunization. Out of the 1200 participants, 1129 received the 4th dose of sIPV as booster immunization. Immunogenicity was evaluated in 1100 participants. RESULTS Seropositive rates of the anti-poliovirus type 1, 2, and 3 neutralizing antibodies were 99.9 %, 98.0 %, 98.2 %, respectively, with GMTs of 557.0, 146.1, 362.0 one year after primary vaccination. After booster vaccination between 18 and 24 months old, the seropositive rates for 3 types all reached 100.0 %, with GMTs of 8343.6, 5039.6, 5492.0, respectively. Particularly for the anti-poliovirus type 2 antibody, the GMT was 230.4 after primary immunization, maintained to 146.1 one year after primary immunization, and increased to as high as 5039.6 after booster vaccination. The GMT ratios between each batch groups after booster immunization were between 0.67 and 1.50, meeting the immunological equivalence criteria. The incidence rate of adverse reaction was 23.0 %, which was comparable to those in the phase Ⅲ trial but had a lower incidence. Furthermore, no SUSAR was reported in this study. INTERPRETATION In conclusion, as the anti-poliovirus antibodies gradually waned one year post sIPV primary vaccination, especially the type 2 antibody waned to a very low level, suggesting the importance of the booster immunization for children at the age of 18-24 months old. The booster shot can greatly enhance the antibody level and protect children from the potential risk of infection with WPV and VDPV by supplementing the anti-poliovirus type 2 immunity gap in the current real world. Clinic Trial Registration. NCT04224519.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiongzhou Yin
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yan Zheng
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Zhifang Ying
- Division of Respiratory Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, China
| | - Jingyu Li
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ya Jiang
- Mile Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mile, Yunnan, China
| | - Wenmei Bao
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu, Yunnan, China
| | - Youjian Dou
- Mile Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mile, Yunnan, China
| | - Yi Pu
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu, Yunnan, China
| | - Jin Lei
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu, Yunnan, China
| | - Haitao Yang
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ruiju Jiang
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yan Deng
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Zhimei Zhao
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Jing Pu
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yadong Li
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Min Xu
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Wei Cai
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yanchun Che
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
| | - Li Shi
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yin Q, Zheng Y, Ying Z, Li J, Jiang Y, Bao W, Dou Y, Pu Y, Lei J, Yang H, Jiang R, Deng Y, Zhao Z, Pu J, Yang J, Li Y, Xu M, Cai W, Che Y, Shi L. Quantitative Analysis of the Instant and Persistent Inhibition Effects of Maternal Poliovirus Antibodies on the Immune Response in a Phase IV Trial of a Sabin Strain-Based Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:217. [PMID: 38400200 PMCID: PMC10892800 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12020217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND An inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine made from Sabin strains (sIPVs) has widely been used in China since 2015. However, the quantitative data on the instant and persistent inhibition effects of maternal poliovirus antibodies on the immune response to sIPV priming and booster vaccination have not been available yet. OBJECTIVE In this study, we aim to explore and quantify the instant and persistent inhibition effect of maternal poliovirus antibodies on the immune response elicited by sIPV primary and booster vaccination. METHODS The immunogenicity data consisting of the days 0 and 30 after the prime and booster vaccination of the sIPV in a phase IV trial were pooled for a quantitative analysis of the inhibition effect of maternal poliovirus antibody. The geometric mean ratio (GMR) was calculated using linear regression models, representing that every 2-fold higher maternal poliovirus antibody titer may result in a (1-GMR) lower postimmunization antibody titer. RESULTS The GMRs for poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3 were 0.79 (0.77-0.82), 0.85 (0.81-0.89), and 0.87 (0.83-0.91) at 30 days after the priming series, 0.86 (0.83-0.89), 0.81 (0.76-0.85), and 0.86 (0.80-0.93) at one year after the priming series, and 0.96 (0.94-0.99), 0.89 (0.86-0.93), and 0.98 (0.93-1.03) at 30 days after the booster dose. The inhibition effect continued to exist until the booster dose 1 year later, and such a persistent inhibition effect was almost attenuated for poliovirus types 1 and 3, and partly reduced for type 2 at 30 days after the booster dose. CONCLUSION A wider interval between the four sIPV doses might be a consideration for reducing the effect of maternal antibodies and subsequently eliciting and maintaining higher antibody levels to protect against poliovirus transmission and infection at the final stage of polio eradication in the global world. This study's clinical trial registry number is NCT04224519.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiongzhou Yin
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Yan Zheng
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming 650022, China
| | - Zhifang Ying
- Division of Respiratory Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Jingyu Li
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming 650022, China
| | - Ya Jiang
- Mile Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mile 652399, China
| | - Wenmei Bao
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu 661000, China
| | - Youjian Dou
- Mile Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mile 652399, China
| | - Yi Pu
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu 661000, China
| | - Jin Lei
- Gejiu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Gejiu 661000, China
| | - Haitao Yang
- Vaccine Clinical Research Center, Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming 650022, China
| | - Ruiju Jiang
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Yan Deng
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Zhimei Zhao
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Jing Pu
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Jing Yang
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Yadong Li
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Min Xu
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Wei Cai
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Yanchun Che
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| | - Li Shi
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China; (Q.Y.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kalkowska DA, Badizadegan K, Routh JA, Burns CC, Rosenberg ES, Brenner IR, Zucker JR, Langdon-Embry M, Thompson KM. Modeling undetected poliovirus circulation following the 2022 outbreak in the United States. Expert Rev Vaccines 2024; 23:186-195. [PMID: 38164695 PMCID: PMC11284832 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2023.2299401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New York State (NYS) reported a polio case (June 2022) and outbreak of imported type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV2) (last positive wastewater detection in February 2023), for which uncertainty remains about potential ongoing undetected transmission. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Extending a prior deterministic model, we apply an established stochastic modeling approach to characterize the confidence about no circulation (CNC) of cVDPV2 as a function of time since the last detected signal of transmission (i.e. poliovirus positive acute flaccid myelitis case or wastewater sample). RESULTS With the surveillance coverage for the NYS population majority and its focus on outbreak counties, modeling suggests a high CNC (95%) within 3-10 months of the last positive surveillance signal, depending on surveillance sensitivity and population mixing patterns. Uncertainty about surveillance sensitivity implies longer durations required to achieve higher CNC. CONCLUSIONS In populations that maintain high overall immunization coverage with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), rare polio cases may occur in un(der)-vaccinated individuals. Modeling demonstrates the unlikeliness of type 2 outbreaks reestablishing endemic transmission or resulting in large absolute numbers of paralytic cases. Achieving and maintaining high immunization coverage with IPV remains the most effective measure to prevent outbreaks and shorten the duration of imported poliovirus transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Janell A. Routh
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Cara C. Burns
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Eli S. Rosenberg
- Office of Public Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY, USA
| | - I. Ravi Brenner
- Office of Public Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Jane R. Zucker
- New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, New York, NY, USA
- Immunization Services Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Kimberly M. Thompson
- Kid Risk, Inc, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Public Health, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mbani CJ, Nekoua MP, Moukassa D, Hober D. The Fight against Poliovirus Is Not Over. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1323. [PMID: 37317297 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV), the virus that causes both acute poliomyelitis and post-polio syndrome, is classified within the Enterovirus C species, and there are three wild PV serotypes: WPV1, WPV2 and WPV3. The launch of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) in 1988 eradicated two of the three serotypes of WPV (WPV2 and WPV3). However, the endemic transmission of WPV1 persists in Afghanistan and Pakistan in 2022. There are cases of paralytic polio due to the loss of viral attenuation in the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), known as vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV). Between January 2021 and May 2023, a total of 2141 circulating VDPV (cVDPV) cases were reported in 36 countries worldwide. Because of this risk, inactivated poliovirus (IPV) is being used more widely, and attenuated PV2 has been removed from OPV formulations to obtain bivalent OPV (containing only types 1 and 3). In order to avoid the reversion of attenuated OPV strains, the new OPV, which is more stable due to genome-wide modifications, as well as sabin IPV and virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, is being developed and offers promising solutions for eradicating WP1 and VDPV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chaldam Jespère Mbani
- Laboratoire de Virologie URL3610, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, 59000 Lille, France
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences et Technique, Université Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Congo
| | | | - Donatien Moukassa
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences et Technique, Université Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Congo
| | - Didier Hober
- Laboratoire de Virologie URL3610, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, 59000 Lille, France
| |
Collapse
|