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Crabbe JC, Cameron AJ, Munn E, Bunning M, Wahlsten D. Overview of mouse assays of ethanol intoxication. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; Chapter 9:Unit 9.26. [PMID: 18428672 DOI: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0926s42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
There are many behavioral assays to assess sensitivity to ethanol intoxication in mice. Most are simple to implement, and are sensitive to a particular dose range of ethanol. Most reflect genetic influences, and each test appears to reflect the contribution of a relatively distinct collection of genes. This genetic heterogeneity implies that no single test can claim to capture the construct "ethanol intoxication" completely. Depending on the test, and when measurements are made, acute functional tolerance to even a single dose of ethanol must be considered as a contributing factor. Whether or not a test is conducted in naïve mice or as part of a test battery can influence sensitivity, and do so in a strain-dependent manner. This unit reviews existing tests and recommends several.
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Roberts A, Pardo-Manuel de Villena F, Wang W, McMillan L, Threadgill DW. The polymorphism architecture of mouse genetic resources elucidated using genome-wide resequencing data: implications for QTL discovery and systems genetics. Mamm Genome 2007; 18:473-81. [PMID: 17674098 PMCID: PMC1998888 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-007-9045-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Accepted: 06/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mouse genetic resources include inbred strains, recombinant inbred lines, chromosome substitution strains, heterogeneous stocks, and the Collaborative Cross (CC). These resources were generated through various breeding designs that potentially produce different genetic architectures, including the level of diversity represented, the spatial distribution of the variation, and the allele frequencies within the resource. By combining sequencing data for 16 inbred strains and the recorded history of related strains, the architecture of genetic variation in mouse resources was determined. The most commonly used resources harbor only a fraction of the genetic diversity of Mus musculus, which is not uniformly distributed thus resulting in many blind spots. Only resources that include wild-derived inbred strains from subspecies other than M. m. domesticus have no blind spots and a uniform distribution of the variation. Unlike other resources that are primarily suited for gene discovery, the CC is the only resource that can support genome-wide network analysis, which is the foundation of systems genetics. The CC captures significantly more genetic diversity with no blind spots and has a more uniform distribution of the variation than all other resources. Furthermore, the distribution of allele frequencies in the CC resembles that seen in natural populations like humans in which many variants are found at low frequencies and only a minority of variants are common. We conclude that the CC represents a dramatic improvement over existing genetic resources for mammalian systems biology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Roberts
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
| | - Fernando Pardo-Manuel de Villena
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Training Program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
| | - Leonard McMillan
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Training Program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
| | - David W. Threadgill
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Training Program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 USA
- Center for Environmental Health and Susceptibility and Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, 27599 USA
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 7264, 103 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264 USA
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Rikke BA, Battaglia ME, Allison DB, Johnson TE. Murine weight loss exhibits significant genetic variation during dietary restriction. Physiol Genomics 2006; 27:122-30. [PMID: 16849633 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00068.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We present genetic analyses of murine weight loss during dietary restriction (DR) for females eating 60% ad libitum (AL). We examined 5 cohorts across 81 different strains (22 strains tested twice) that included the LXS and LSXSS recombinant inbred strains, the LXS parental strains ILS and ISS, and the classical inbreds 129S6, A, BALB/c, C57BL/6, C3H, and DBA. Weight loss exhibited highly significant genetic variation, with DR body weights ranging from ∼60 to ∼85% of AL body weight. This variation was not explained by the strain differences in absolute food intake, feces calorie content, motor activity, or AL body fat. Heritability was 40–50%, and several provisional quantitative trait loci were mapped. This variation can be used to test whether weight loss correlates with the health benefits of DR, independently of the reduction in calories. The genetic variation also implies the existence of genes that would be novel therapeutic targets, distinct from genes affecting AL body weight or body fat, for enhancing (or mitigating) weight loss during food restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad A Rikke
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0447, USA.
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Downing C, Carosone-Link P, Bennett B, Johnson T. QTL Mapping for Low-Dose Ethanol Activation in the LXS Recombinant Inbred Strains. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30:1111-20. [PMID: 16792557 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00137.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most mouse quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for behavioral traits have been mapped using populations of mice derived from C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2). It is also important to identify QTLs for behavior in populations derived from other progenitors. We report results from QTL mapping for low-dose (ethanol) locomotor activation (LDA) using the recently developed LXS recombinant inbred (RI) strains, derived from Inbred Long Sleep (ILS) and Inbred Short Sleep (ISS) progenitors. The LXS RI panel has additional genetic variation, and greater power due to a larger number of strains, compared with other RI panels and strain crosses. METHODS Mice were tested using a 3-day protocol in which activity levels were monitored for 15 minutes each day. On day 1, baseline activity was recorded; on day 2, mice were injected with saline before testing; and on day 3, mice were injected with 1.8 g/kg ethanol and tested. RESULTS Several suggestive QTLs were found, on chromosomes 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, and 13; 3 of these QTLs were sex-specific. CONCLUSIONS Two apparently novel LDA QTLs were identified, on chromosomes 4 and 8. The other QTLs appear to replicate previously identified LDA QTLs. These replicated QTLs will be pursued in subsequent studies designed to identify candidate genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Downing
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
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Bennett B, Carosone-Link PJ, Lu L, Chesler EJ, Johnson TE. Genetics of body weight in the LXS recombinant inbred mouse strains. Mamm Genome 2005; 16:764-74. [PMID: 16261418 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-005-0002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2005] [Accepted: 06/21/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This is the first phenotypic analysis of 75 new recombinant inbred (RI) strains derived from ILS and ISS progenitors. We analyzed body weight in two independent cohorts of female mice at various ages and in males at 60 days. Body weight is a complex trait which has been mapped in numerous crosses in rodents. The LXS RI strains displayed a large range of weights, transgressing those of the inbred progenitors, supporting the utility of this large panel for mapping traits not selected in the progenitors. Numerous QTLs for body weight mapped in single- and multilocus scans. We assessed replication between these and previously reported QTLs based on overlapping confidence intervals of published QTLs for body weight at 60 days and used meta-analyses to determine combined p values for three QTL regions located on Chromosomes 4, 5, and 11. Strain distribution patterns of microsatellite marker genotypes, weight, and other phenotypes are available on WebQTL (http://www.webqtl.org/search.html ) and allow genetic mapping of any heritable quantitative phenotype measured in these strains. We report one such analysis, correlating brain and body weights. Large reference panels of RI strains, such as the LXS, are invaluable for identifying genetic correlations, GXE (Gene X Environment) interactions, and replicating previously identified QTLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Bennett
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, 447, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0447, USA.
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Ruf C, Carosone-Link P, Springett J, Bennett B. Confirmation and Genetic Dissection of a Major Quantitative Trait Locus for Alcohol Preference Drinking. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2004; 28:1613-21. [PMID: 15547446 DOI: 10.1097/01.alc.0000145693.58448.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In previous work, we created congenic strains that carry the DBA/2IBG (D2) region for alcohol preference on chromosome 2, on an otherwise C57BL/6IBG (B6) background. Here, we report construction and testing of interval-specific congenic recombinant strains (ISCRSs) for the purpose of narrowing the quantitative trait loci (QTL) interval. METHODS ISCRSs were derived by identifying mice that carry recombination events in the D2 interval, during the backcrossing for congenics. Recombinant mice were backcrossed to B6, and progeny that carry the reduced chromosome 2 region were tested for its effect on the alcohol preference phenotype. RESULTS We developed multiple ISCR strains, which spanned the QTL interval. Three of these showed the D2 phenotype of reduced alcohol consumption. The overlap of two of these strains reduced the QTL interval from 66.8 to 3.5 Mb. A third positive ISCRS suggests the possibility of a second, linked QTL. CONCLUSIONS Use of ISCRSs can narrow a QTL region to a few Mb. This reduced interval size will facilitate identification of candidate genes, through bioinformatics, gene expression, and DNA sequencing strategies. Potential difficulties, including reduced power as a result of variable phenotypes or small effect size, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Ruf
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, CB 447, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0447, USA
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Rikke BA, Johnson TE. Lower body temperature as a potential mechanism of life extension in homeotherms. Exp Gerontol 2004; 39:927-30. [PMID: 15217694 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2004.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Although best known for his studies on the anti-aging effects of dietary restriction, Dr Roy Walford began his career by studying the anti-aging effects of lowering body temperature. As a tribute to his long and productive career, we review these pioneering studies and the singular influence these have had on our own thinking about the potential for lower body temperature to extend the life span of homeotherms. We show our results from a study of six classical inbred strains of mice that depict marked strain variation in the body temperature response to dietary restriction. In addition, we show a genome scan from a recombinant inbred strain panel in which we identified a significant quantitative trait locus on murine chromosome 9 and a provisional locus on chromosome 17 that specify variation in the response of body temperature to dietary restriction. These discoveries suggest that we can now extend the studies of Dr Walford to critically test whether lower body temperature can prolong the life span of mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad A Rikke
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado at Boulder, Campus Box 447, Boulder, CO 80309-0447, USA.
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Yezerski A, Stevens L, Ametrano J. A genetic linkage map for Tribolium confusum based on random amplified polymorphic DNAs and recombinant inbred lines. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 12:517-526. [PMID: 12974957 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2583.2003.00438.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Tribolium beetles provide an excellent and easily manipulated model system for the study of genetics. However, despite significant increases in the availability of molecular markers for the study of genetics in recent years, a significant genetic linkage map for these beetles remains undeveloped. We present the first molecular genetic linkage map for Tribolium confusum using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. The linkage map contains 137 loci mapped on to eight linkage groups totaling 968.5 cM.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Yezerski
- King's College, Biology Department, 133 North River Street, Wilkes-Barre, PA 18711, USA.
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Downing C, Shen EH, Simpson VJ, Johnson TE. Mapping quantitative trait loci mediating sensitivity to etomidate. Mamm Genome 2003; 14:367-75. [PMID: 12879358 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-002-2235-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2002] [Accepted: 02/14/2003] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Long- and Short-Sleep (LS and SS) mice were selectively bred for differences in ethanol-induced loss of the righting reflex (LORR) and have been found to differ in LORR induced by various anesthetic agents. We used a two-stage mapping strategy to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting duration of LORR caused by the general anesthetic etomidate and brain levels of etomidate (BEL) following regain of the righting reflex. Analysis of recombinant-inbred strains derived from a cross between LS and SS mice (LSXSS) yielded a heritability estimate of 0.23 for etomidate-induced LORR and identified one marker that showed suggestive linkage for a QTL, on mouse Chromosome (chr) 12. Mapping in an F(2) population derived from a cross between inbred LS and SS (ILS and ISS) revealed a significant QTL for etomidate-induced LORR on Chr 12, and two significant QTLs mediating BEL on Chrs 6 and 12. Several QTLs showing suggestive linkage for etomidate-induced LORR and BEL were also identified in the F(2) population. Brain levels of etomidate in the RI and F(2) mice suggested that differences in LORR were due to differential central nervous system sensitivity, rather than differential etomidate metabolism. Interestingly, the region on Chr 7 has also been identified as a region influencing ethanol-induced LORR, suggesting the possibility of a common genetic mechanism mediating etomidate and ethanol sensitivity. These QTL regions need to be further narrowed before the testing of candidate genes is feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Downing
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0447, USA.
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Bennett B, Beeson M, Gordon L, Carosone-Link P, Johnson TE. Genetic Dissection of Quantitative Trait Loci Specifying Sedative/Hypnotic Sensitivity to Ethanol: Mapping With Interval-Specific Congenic Recombinant Lines. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02463.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Palmer AA, Phillips TJ. Effect of Forward and Reverse Selection for Ethanol-Induced Locomotor Response on Other Measures of Ethanol Sensitivity. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02674.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Bennett B, Beeson M, Gordon L, Johnson TE. Reciprocal Congenics Defining Individual Quantitative Trait Loci for Sedative/Hypnotic Sensitivity to Ethanol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02519.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Gehle VM, Erwin VG. The Genetics of Acute Functional Tolerance and Initial Sensitivity to Ethanol for an Ataxia Test in the LSxSS RI Strains. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02028.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Zahniser NR, Negri CA, Hanania T, Gehle VM. MK-801-Induced Locomotor Activity in Long-Sleep x Short-Sleep Recombinant Inbred Mouse Strains: Correlational Analysis With Low-Dose Ethanol and Provisional Quantitative Trait Loci. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04066.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Markel PD, Erwin VG. Allele Dose Analysis in Recombinant Inbred Strains: A Tool for Multiple Phenotype Analysis With Implications for Quantitative Trait Loci Mapping. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Blednov YA, Simpson VJ. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry assay for determination of ketamine in brain. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 1999; 41:91-5. [PMID: 10598680 DOI: 10.1016/s1056-8719(99)00023-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and precise gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method with selected ion monitoring has been developed for determination of ketamine in the brain using chlorpheniramine as an internal standard. The assay is based on the acid extraction of brain homogenate with hexane and ethyl ether with subsequent alkaline ethyl ether extraction. The analytical procedure has a coefficient of variation of 3.0-5.3% and from 3.8 to 6.1% for extraction from water or spiked brain samples, respectively. The lowest detectable level of ketamine was 1 ng in any brain region. This level of detection was used to measure the ketamine concentrations in cerebellum, brain stem, midbrain, hypothalamus, and cortex of C57B1/6 mice at awakening following intraperitoneal injection of a hypnotic dose. The ketamine concentrations in mouse brain were in the range from 41.6 to 48.6 ng/mg of tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y A Blednov
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver 80262, USA
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Kim CH, Kim HS, Cubells JF, Kim KS. A previously undescribed intron and extensive 5' upstream sequence, but not Phox2a-mediated transactivation, are necessary for high level cell type-specific expression of the human norepinephrine transporter gene. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:6507-18. [PMID: 10037744 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.10.6507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The synaptic action of norepinephrine is terminated by NaCl-dependent uptake into presynaptic noradrenergic nerve endings, mediated by the norepinephrine transporter (NET). NET is expressed only in neuronal tissues that synthesize and secrete norepinephrine and in most cases is co-expressed with the norepinephrine-synthetic enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH). To understand the molecular mechanisms regulating human NET (hNET) gene expression, we isolated and characterized an hNET genomic clone encompassing approximately 9. 5 kilobase pairs of the 5' upstream promoter region. Here we demonstrate that the hNET gene contains an as-yet-unidentified intron of 476 base pairs within the 5'-untranslated region. Furthermore, both primer extension and 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends analyses identified multiple transcription start sites from mRNAs expressed only in NET-expressing cell lines. The start sites clustered in two subdomains, each preceded by a TATA-like sequence motif. As expected for mature mRNAs, transcripts from most of these sites each contained an additional G residue at the 5' position. Together, the data strongly support the authenticity of these sites as the transcriptional start sites of hNET. We assembled hNET-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter constructs containing different lengths of hNET 5' sequence in the presence or the absence of the first intron. Transient transfection assays indicated that the combination of the 5' upstream sequence and the first intron supported the highest level of noradrenergic cell-specific transcription. Forced expression of the paired-like homeodomain transcription factor Phox2a did not affect hNET promoter activity in NET-negative cell lines, in marked contrast to its effect on a DBH-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter construct. Together with our previous studies suggesting a critical role of Phox2a for noradrenergic-specific expression of the DBH gene, these data support a model in which distinct, or partially distinct, molecular mechanisms regulate cell-specific expression of the NET and DBH genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C H Kim
- Department of Neurology and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA
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Markel PD, Bennett B, Beeson M, Gordon L, Johnson TE. Confirmation of quantitative trait loci for ethanol sensitivity in long-sleep and short-sleep mice. Genome Res 1997; 7:92-9. [PMID: 9049627 DOI: 10.1101/gr.7.2.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Initial insensitivity to alcohol is a strong predictor of human alcoholism, a widespread and heritable health problem. The Long Sleep and Short Sleep lines of mice were developed by genetic selection for high or low alcohol sensitivity. We have identified seven quantitative trait loci (QTLs) specifying differences in alcohol sensitivity using intercross progeny from these selected strains. These QTLs (Lorel-Lore7) together account for approximately 60% of the total genetic variance for this trait. This represents the first report of linkages for genes influencing alcohol action in any mammalian system using stringent, genome-wide mapping criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Markel
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder 80309, USA.
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