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Manzoor MA, Xu Y, Lv Z, Xu J, Shah IH, Sabir IA, Wang Y, Sun W, Liu X, Wang L, Liu R, Jiu S, Zhang C. Horticulture crop under pressure: Unraveling the impact of climate change on nutrition and fruit cracking. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 357:120759. [PMID: 38554453 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
Climate change is increasingly affecting the nutritional content and structural integrity of horticultural crops, leading to challenges such as diminished fruit quality and the exacerbation of fruit cracking. This manuscript systematically explores the multifaceted impacts of these changes, with a particular focus on the nutritional quality and increased incidence of fruit cracking. An exhaustive review of current research identifies the critical role of transcription factors in mediating plant responses to climatic stressors, such as drought, temperature extremes, and saline conditions. The significance of transcription factors, including bHLH, bZIP, DOF, MDP, HD-ZIP, MYB, and ERF4, is highlighted in the development of fruit cracking, underscoring the genetic underpinnings behind stress-related phenotypic outcomes. The effectiveness of greenhouse structures in mitigating adverse climatic effects is evaluated, offering a strategic approach to sustain crop productivity amidst CO2 fluctuations and water scarcity, which are shown to influence plant physiology and lead to changes in fruit development, nutrient dynamics, and a heightened risk of cracking. Moreover, the manuscript delves into advanced breeding strategies and genetic engineering techniques, such as genome editing, to enhance crop resilience against climatic challenges. It also discusses adaptation strategies vital for sustainable horticulture, emphasizing the need to integrate novel genetic insights with controlled environment horticulture to counteract climate change's detrimental effects. The synthesis presented here underscores the urgent need for innovative breeding strategies aimed at developing resilient crop varieties that can withstand climatic uncertainty while preserving nutritional integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Aamir Manzoor
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Yan Xu
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Zhengxin Lv
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jieming Xu
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Iftikhar Hussain Shah
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Irfan Ali Sabir
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Yuxuan Wang
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Wanxia Sun
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xunju Liu
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Ruie Liu
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Songtao Jiu
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China.
| | - Caixi Zhang
- Department of Plant Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China.
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La Spada P, Dominguez E, Continella A, Heredia A, Gentile A. Factors influencing fruit cracking: an environmental and agronomic perspective. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1343452. [PMID: 38434425 PMCID: PMC10904461 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1343452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Fruit cracking, a widespread physiological disorder affecting various fruit crops and vegetables, has profound implications for fruit quality and marketability. This mini review delves into the multifaceted factors contributing to fruit cracking and emphasizes the pivotal roles of environmental and agronomic factors in its occurrence. Environmental variables such as temperature, relative humidity, and light exposure are explored as determinants factors influencing fruit cracking susceptibility. Furthermore, the significance of mineral nutrition and plant growth regulators in mitigating fruit cracking risk is elucidated, being calcium deficiency identified as a prominent variable in various fruit species. In recent years, precision farming and monitoring systems have emerged as valuable tools for managing environmental factors and optimizing fruit production. By meticulously tracking parameters such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and fruit skin temperature, growers can make informed decisions to prevent or alleviate fruit cracking. In conclusion, effective prevention of fruit cracking necessitates a comprehensive approach that encompasses both environmental and agronomic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo La Spada
- Dipartimento Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente (Di3A) - Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Eva Dominguez
- Departamento de Mejora Genética y Biotecnología, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora, Universidad de Málaga - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Málaga, Spain
| | - Alberto Continella
- Dipartimento Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente (Di3A) - Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Antonio Heredia
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Bioquímica, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora, Universidad de Málaga - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Málaga, Spain
| | - Alessandra Gentile
- Dipartimento Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente (Di3A) - Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
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Hu Y, Li Y, Zhu B, Huang W, Chen J, Wang F, Chen Y, Wang M, Lai H, Zhou Y. Genome-wide identification of the expansin gene family in netted melon and their transcriptional responses to fruit peel cracking. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1332240. [PMID: 38322822 PMCID: PMC10846642 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1332240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Fruit cracking not only affects the appearance of netted melons (Cucumis melo L. var. reticulatus Naud.) but also decreases their marketability. Methods Herein, to comprehensively understand the role of expansin (EXP) proteins in netted melon, bioinformatics methods were employed to discover the EXP gene family in the melon genome and analyze its characteristic features. Furthermore, transcriptomics analysis was performed to determine the expression patterns of melon EXP (CmEXP) genes in crack-tolerant and crack-susceptible netted melon varieties. Discussion Thirty-three CmEXP genes were identified. Chromosomal location analysis revealed that CmEXP gene distribution was uneven on 12 chromosomes. In addition, phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that CmEXP genes could be categorized into four subgroups, among which the EXPA subgroup had the most members. The same subgroup members shared similar protein motifs and gene structures. Thirteen duplicate events were identified in the 33 CmEXP genes. Collinearity analysis revealed that the CmEXP genes had 50, 50, and 44 orthologous genes with EXP genes in cucumber, watermelon, and Arabidopsis, respectively. However, only nine orthologous EXP genes were observed in rice. Promoter cis-acting element analysis demonstrated that numerous cis-acting elements in the upstream promoter region of CmEXP genes participate in plant growth, development, and environmental stress responses. Transcriptomics analysis revealed 14 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the non-cracked fruit peels between the crack-tolerant variety 'Xizhoumi 17' (N17) and the crack-susceptible variety 'Xizhoumi 25' (N25). Among the 14 genes, 11 were upregulated, whereas the remaining three were downregulated in N17. In the non-cracked (N25) and cracked (C25) fruit peels of 'Xizhoumi 25', 24 DEGs were identified, and 4 of them were upregulated, whereas the remaining 20 were downregulated in N25. In the two datasets, only CmEXPB1 exhibited consistently upregulated expression, indicating its importance in the fruit peel crack resistance of netted melon. Transcription factor prediction revealed 56 potential transcription factors that regulate CmEXPB1 expression. Results Our study findings enrich the understanding of the CmEXP gene family and present candidate genes for the molecular breeding of fruit peel crack resistance of netted melon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Hu
- School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry (School of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, School of Rural Revitalization), Key Laboratory for Quality Regulation of Tropical Horticultural Crops of Hainan Province, Haikou, China
- Sanya Institute, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sanya, China
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Yuxin Li
- School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry (School of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, School of Rural Revitalization), Key Laboratory for Quality Regulation of Tropical Horticultural Crops of Hainan Province, Haikou, China
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Baibi Zhu
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Wenfeng Huang
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Sanya Institute, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sanya, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Sanya Institute, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sanya, China
| | - Yisong Chen
- Sanya Institute, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sanya, China
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Min Wang
- Sanya Institute, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sanya, China
- The Institute of Vegetables, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biology of Hainan Province, Hainan Vegetable Breeding Engineering Technology Research Center, Haikou, China
| | - Hanggui Lai
- School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry (School of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, School of Rural Revitalization), Key Laboratory for Quality Regulation of Tropical Horticultural Crops of Hainan Province, Haikou, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry (School of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, School of Rural Revitalization), Key Laboratory for Quality Regulation of Tropical Horticultural Crops of Hainan Province, Haikou, China
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Huang S, Yang X, Wang T, Li H, Deng L, Bi X, Hu J, Gong Y, Li Y, Qin Z, Yao Y, Sun G, Liao L, Zhang M, He S, Jiang L, Wang Z. Physiological Mechanisms of Citrus Fruit Cracking: Study on Cell Wall Components, Osmoregulatory Substances, and Antioxidant Enzyme Activities. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:257. [PMID: 38256810 PMCID: PMC10820700 DOI: 10.3390/plants13020257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Fruit cracking affects both the yield and economic efficiency of citrus; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Therefore, this study focused on resistant and susceptible cultivars to identify the mechanisms underlying fruit cracking. The results showed that in 'Mingrijian', pectin morphological transformation and hemicellulose and lignin degradation in the pericarp were important contributing factors. During the critical fruit-cracking period (115-150 days after flowering), the water-soluble pectin, protopectin, and lignin contents in the pericarp of 'Daya' presented inverse changes relative to those in 'Mingrijian', thus enhancing the mechanical properties and resistance of pericarp. From 115 to 150 days after flowering, the soluble sugar content in the pulp of 'Mingrijian' increased rapidly by 97.35%, aiding in pulp water absorption and expansion. Moreover, the soluble protein content in the pericarp of 'Mingrijian' exhibited a declining trend and was lower than that of 'Daya', thus affecting the overall metabolism. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the pericarp of 'Mingrijian' gradually decreased from 115 to 180 days after flowering, while the peroxidase (POD) activity remained at a low level, resulting in weaker antioxidant capacity and lower environmental resistance. This study provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of citrus fruit cracking, laying the foundation for preventive and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengjia Huang
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
- Institute of Economic Forest Research, Sichuan Academy of Forestry, Chengdu 610081, China
| | - Xinxia Yang
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Tie Wang
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Hang Li
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Lijun Deng
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xiaoyi Bi
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Juan Hu
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yan Gong
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yunjie Li
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Zeyu Qin
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yuan Yao
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Guochao Sun
- Institute of Pomology and Olericulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Ling Liao
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Mingfei Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Siya He
- Institute of Pomology and Olericulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Lingping Jiang
- Agricultural and Rural Bureau, Shimian, Ya’an 625400, China
| | - Zhihui Wang
- College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
- Institute of Pomology and Olericulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
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Yi X, Chen W, Guan J, Zhu J, Zhang Q, Yang H, Yang H, Zhong S, Chen C, Tan F, Ren T, Luo P. Genome-Wide Analysis of the Polygalacturonase Gene Family Sheds Light on the Characteristics, Evolutionary History, and Putative Function of Akebia trifoliata. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16973. [PMID: 38069295 PMCID: PMC10707396 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Polygalacturonase (PG) is one of the largest families of hydrolytic enzymes in plants. It is involved in the breakdown of pectin in the plant cell wall and even contributes to peel cracks. Here, we characterize PGs and outline their expression profiles using the available reference genome and transcriptome of Akebia trifoliata. The average length and exon number of the 47 identified AktPGs, unevenly assigned on 14 chromosomes and two unassembled contigs, were 5399 bp and 7, respectively. The phylogenetic tree of 191 PGs, including 47, 57, 51, and 36 from A. trifoliata, Durio zibethinus, Actinidia chinensis, and Vitis vinifera, respectively, showed that AktPGs were distributed in all groups except group G and that 10 AktPGs in group E were older, while the remaining 37 AktPGs were younger. Evolutionarily, all AktPGs generally experienced whole-genome duplication (WGD)/segmental repeats and purifying selection. Additionally, the origin of conserved domain III was possibly associated with a histidine residue (H) substitute in motif 8. The results of both the phylogenetic tree and expression profiling indicated that five AktPGs, especially AktPG25, could be associated with the cracking process. Detailed information and data on the PG family are beneficial for further study of the postharvest biology of A. trifoliata.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Peigao Luo
- Key Laboratory of Plant Genetics and Breeding, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (X.Y.); (W.C.); (J.G.); (J.Z.); (Q.Z.); (H.Y.); (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (C.C.); (F.T.); (T.R.)
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Hurtado G, Knoche M. Microcracking of strawberry fruit cuticles: mechanism and factors. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19376. [PMID: 37938590 PMCID: PMC10632442 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46366-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Microscopic cracks in the cuticle (microcracks) are the first symptom of the strawberry fruit disorder 'water soaking' in which the fruit surface appears watery, translucent, and pale. Water soaking severely impacts fruit quality. The objective was to investigate the factors and mechanisms of cuticular microcracking in strawberry. Fluorescence microscopy revealed numerous microcracks in the achene depressions, on the rims between depressions and at the bases of trichomes. Microcracks in the achene depressions and on the rims were either parallel or transversely oriented relative to a radius drawn from the rim to the point of attachment of the achene. In the achene depression, the frequency of microcracks with parallel orientation decreased from the calyx end of the fruit, towards the fruit tip, while the frequency of those with transverse orientation remained constant. Most microcracks occurred above the periclinal cell walls of the epidermal cells. The long axes of the epidermal cells were primarily parallel-oriented. Microcracking increased during fruit development. Cuticle mass per fruit remained constant as fruit surface area increased but cuticle thickness decreased. When fruit developed under high relative humidity (RH) conditions, the cuticle had more microcracks than under low RH conditions. Exposing the fruit surface to increasing RHs, increased microcracking, especially above 75% RH. Liquid-phase water on the fruit surface was markedly more effective in inducing microcracking than high vapor-phase water (high RH). The results demonstrate that a combination of surface area growth strain and water exposure is causal in inducing microcracking of the strawberry cuticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grecia Hurtado
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz University Hanover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz University Hanover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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Grimm E, Peters M, Kaltenbach J, Zhang C, Knoche M. Growth strains cause vascular browning and cavities in ´Nicoter´ apples. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289013. [PMID: 37471438 PMCID: PMC10359005 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
'Nicoter' apples (Malus × domestica Borkh.) occasionally develop a disorder referred to as vascular browning. Symptomatic fruit are perceived as being of low quality. The objective was to identify the mechanistic basis of this disorder. The frequency of symptomatic 'Nicoter' apples differed between growing sites and increased with delayed harvest. Typical symptoms are tissue browning and cavities in the ray parenchyma of the calyx region, and occasionally also of the stem end. Cavity size is positively correlated with the extent of tissue browning. Cavities were oriented radially in the direction of the bisecting line between the radii connecting the calyx/pedicel axis to the sepal and petal bundles. Microscopy revealed cell wall fragments in the cavities indicating physical rupture of cell walls. Immunolabelling of cell wall epitopes offered no evidence for separation of cells along cell walls. The growth pattern in 'Nicoter' is similar to that in its parents 'Gala' and 'Braeburn'. Allometric analyses revealed no differences in growth in fruit length among the three cultivars. However, the allometric analyses of growth in diameter revealed a marked increase in the distance between the surface of the calyx cavity and the vascular bundle in 'Nicoter', that was absent in 'Braeburn' and 'Gala'. This increase displaced the petal bundles in the ray parenchyma outwards and subjected the tissue between the petal and sepal bundles to tangential strain. Rupture of cells results in tissue browning and cavity formation. A timely harvest is a practicable countermeasure for decreasing the incidence of vascular browning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eckhard Grimm
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Abteilung Obstbau, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Merle Peters
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Abteilung Obstbau, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Julian Kaltenbach
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Abteilung Obstbau, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Chu Zhang
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Abteilung Obstbau, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Abteilung Obstbau, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Santos M, Egea-Cortines M, Gonçalves B, Matos M. Molecular mechanisms involved in fruit cracking: A review. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1130857. [PMID: 36937999 PMCID: PMC10016354 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1130857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Several fleshy fruits are highly affected by cracking, a severe physiological disorder that compromises their quality and causes high economical losses to the producers. Cracking can occur due to physiological, genetic or environmental factors and may happen during fruit growth, development and ripening. Moreover, in fleshy fruits, exocarp plays an important role, acting as a mechanical protective barrier, defending against biotic or abiotic factors. Thus, when biochemical properties of the cuticle + epidermis + hypodermis are affected, cracks appear in the fruit skin. The identification of genes involved in development such as cell wall modifications, biosynthesis and transport of cuticular waxes, cuticular membrane deposition and associated transcription factors provides new insights to better understand how fruit cracking is affected by genetic factors. Amongst the major environmental stresses causing cracking are excessive water during fruit development, leading to imbalances in cations such as Ca. This review focus on expression of key genes in these pathways, in their influence in affected fruits and the potential for molecular breeding programs, aiming to develop cultivars more resistant to cracking under adverse environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Santos
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology (DGB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Marcos Egea-Cortines
- Instituto de Biotecnología Vegetal, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Spain
| | - Berta Gonçalves
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Biology and Environment (DeBA), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Manuela Matos
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology (DGB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
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9
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Liu H, Zhu P, Li Z, Li J, Tchuenbou-Magaia F, Ni J. Thermo-biomechanical coupling analysis for preventing tomato fruit cracking during ripening. J FOOD ENG 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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10
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Yu J, Wang R, Ma W, Lei S, Zhu M, Yang G. Pectate Lyase Gene VvPL1 Plays a Role in Fruit Cracking of Table Grapes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:1643-1654. [PMID: 36638364 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c05996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Fruit cracking seriously affects the commercial value of table grapes. To explore whether cell wall disassembly influences grape berry cracking, first, the differences in the cell wall metabolism were compared between cracking-resistant "Shennongjinhuanghou" (SN) and cracking-susceptible "Xiangfei" (XF) varieties. Our results showed that cell wall disassembly events were extremely different between "SN" and "XF." The cracking-resistant "SN" had a higher pectinmethylesterase activity in the early stage and lower polygalacturonase, β-galactosidase, pectate lyase, and cellulase activities from veraison, cooperatively yielding higher ionically bound pectin, covalently bound pectin, hemicellulose, and lower water-soluble pectin, leading to a stronger skin break force and elasticity and conferring "SN" with higher cracking resistance. Furthermore, the function of the VvPL1 gene in fruit cracking was verified by heterologously transforming tomatoes. The transgenic experiment showed that overexpressed fruits had a higher activity of pectate lyase from the breaking stage and a lower level of covalently bound pectin, ionically bound pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose and a higher level of water-soluble pectin at the red ripe stage, which resulted in a significantly reduced skin break force and flesh firmness and increased fruit cracking incidences. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that the cracking susceptibility of the grape berry is closely related to cell wall disassembly events and VvPL1 plays an important role in fruit cracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yu
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Nongda Road No. 1, Furong District, Changsha410128, Hunan, China
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology, Loudi417000, Hunan, China
| | - Rong Wang
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Nongda Road No. 1, Furong District, Changsha410128, Hunan, China
| | - Wentao Ma
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Nongda Road No. 1, Furong District, Changsha410128, Hunan, China
| | - Shumin Lei
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Nongda Road No. 1, Furong District, Changsha410128, Hunan, China
| | - Mingtao Zhu
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology, Loudi417000, Hunan, China
| | - Guoshun Yang
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Nongda Road No. 1, Furong District, Changsha410128, Hunan, China
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11
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Huai B, Wu Y, Liang C, Tu P, Mei T, Guan A, Yao Q, Li J, Chen J. Effects of calcium on cell wall metabolism enzymes and expression of related genes associated with peel creasing in Citrus fruits. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14574. [PMID: 36570013 PMCID: PMC9784343 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Fruit peel creasing is a serious pre-harvest physiological disorder in citrus, influencing fruit quality, storage, and yield. Four- and eight-year-old 'Hongjiang' oranges grafted onto Canton lemon rootstocks were treated with calcium and calcium inhibitors, respectively, to study the effects of different treatments on fruit creasing rate, mechanical properties of the peel, cell wall metabolism enzyme activities, and the expression of related genes. Foliar application of 0.5% calcium nitrate significantly reduced the fruit creasing rate, while treatment with EGTA and LaCl3, inhibitors of calcium uptake, increased the fruit creasing rate; But the effect of calcium nitrate treatment on changing the mechanical properties of pericarp and inhibiting the activity of hydrolase (PG, Cx and PE) was not very significant. Furthermore, it was observed that the expression levels of genes (PG, Cx, and PE) encoding cell wall-degrading enzymes were significantly lower in the normal fruit peel than in the creased fruit peel. Meanwhile, the expression levels of PG, Cx, and PE were higher in the peel of shaded fruit than in the peel of exposed fruit. During the high incidence period of fruit creasing, calcium nitrate treatment down-regulated the expression of PG, Cx, and PE, while EGTA treatment up-regulated the expression of these genes. In conclusion, foliar spraying of calcium nitrate at the fruit rapid enlargement stage can increase the Ca content in the peel of 'Hongjiang' orange and significantly suppress the expression of cell wall degrading enzymes genes (PG, PE and Cx) in 'Hongjiang' orange peel during the high occurrence period of fruit creasing, resulting in reducing the occurrence of fruit creasing and cracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Huai
- South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yunli Wu
- South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunhui Liang
- Guangdong Agriculture Industry Business Polytechnic College, Guangzhou, China
| | - Panfeng Tu
- Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tingting Mei
- South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Anquan Guan
- Lianjiang Fruit Development Center, Lianjiang, China
| | - Qing Yao
- South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Juan Li
- Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiezhong Chen
- South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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12
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Calcium decreases cell wall swelling in sweet cherry fruit. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16496. [PMID: 36192436 PMCID: PMC9530156 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20266-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Swelling of epidermal cell walls decreases cell-to-cell adhesion and increases cracking susceptibility in sweet cherry. Ca is suggested to decrease cracking susceptibility by crosslinking of cell wall components and, possibly, by decreasing swelling. The objective is to test this hypothesis. The effect of Ca on swelling of anticlinal epidermal cell walls was quantified microscopically in vivo using excised skin sections and in vitro using extracted cell walls. After removal of turgor, cell wall thickness increased. Incubation in CaCl2 decreased cell wall thickness up to 3 mM CaCl2. At higher concentrations thickness remained constant. Decreased cell wall swelling in vivo also occurred with other salts of divalent and trivalent cations, but not with those of monovalent cations. Decreased swelling was due to the Ca cation, the anions had no effect. Ca also decreased swelling of cell walls that were already swollen. CaCl2 also decreased swelling of extracted cell walls in vitro. There was no effect on swelling pressure. The effect on swelling increased as the CaCl2 concentration increased. Chlorides of divalent and trivalent cations, but not those of monovalent cations decreased swelling in vitro. The decrease in swelling among the divalent cations was linearly related to the radius of the cation. The results indicate that Ca decreases cracking susceptibility by decreasing swelling.
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13
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Li D, Liu Y, Fadiji T, Li Z, Okasha M. Analysis of the correlation between mesocarp biomechanics and its cell turgor pressure: A combined
FEM‐DEM
investigation for irrigation‐caused tomato cracking. J Texture Stud 2022; 54:206-221. [PMID: 36116087 DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Fruit mesocarp cracking caused by improper irrigation during development manifests at the macroscale but is ultimately the result of increasing cell turgor pressure at the microscale. Hence, a cell finite element (FE) model including shape, protoplast turgor pressure, and ripening information and a mesocarp tissue block discrete element (DE) model including the features of cell shape and number, were developed to predict the biomechanical correlation between mesocarp and its cell. The validated cell FE model with an internal turgor pressure of 12.9 kPa could reproduce the experimental force-deformation behavior of a single cell in compression up to 11% deformation with an average relative error of 5.8%. The validated mesocarp tissue block DE model could reproduce the experimental force-deformation behavior of a mesocarp block in compression up to 20% deformation with an average relative error of 9.5%. Sensitivity and regression analysis showed that turgor pressure was the most important factor affecting cell biomechanics, followed by cell shape and wall elastic modulus. Similarly, the apparent elastic modulus of the cells has the most significant effect on the mesocarp tissue biomechanics, followed by the number and shape of cells. Finally, a mathematical model was obtained to quantitatively describe the relationship between the elastic modulus of the mesocarp and its cell turgor pressure. This study contributes to a better understanding of the biomechanical mechanisms of irrigation-caused tomato fruit cracking at the cellular level and the development of strategies to prevent fruit cracking through a combination of gene breeding and irrigation management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Li
- College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Northwest A&F University Yangling Shaanxi China
| | - Ying Liu
- College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Northwest A&F University Yangling Shaanxi China
| | - Tobi Fadiji
- Postharvest Research Laboratory, Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology University of Johannesburg Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Zhiguo Li
- College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Northwest A&F University Yangling Shaanxi China
| | - Mahmoud Okasha
- Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AEnRI) , Agricultural Research Center (ARC) Giza Egypt
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14
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Shi H, Zhou X, Qin M, Wang W, He X, Zhou W. Effect of CaCl 2 Sprays in Different Fruit Development Stages on Grape Berry Cracking. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:870959. [PMID: 35769303 PMCID: PMC9234641 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.870959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Grape cracking is a common phenomenon that can reach more than 50% in some varieties and can cause enormous economic losses. "Li Xiu" grapes in different developmental stages were treated with calcium chloride (5 g/L), and the cracking rate and related biochemical and genetic indices were measured in the fruit ripening stage. The results showed that calcium treatment during the flowering period could significantly reduce grape cracking. Based on the experimental results, there are several reasons as follows: first, calcium spraying during the flowering period was more favorable to calcium absorption in grapes, and the increased calcium content in the peels helped to improve the mechanical properties of the peels, thus increasing crack resistance; second, calcium treatment reduced the expression levels of genes related to glucose metabolism, which in turn reduced PG and cellulase activities, delaying the degradation of pectin and cellulose and resulting in more structural integrity of the peels; third, calcium treatment increased fruit hardness and reduced fruit ventral pressure by decreasing the expression levels of ABA-related genes and synthesis of endogenous abscisic acid (ABA), soluble sugars (SSs), and total soluble solids (TSSs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Shi
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
- College of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhou
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Mengling Qin
- College of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, China
| | - Wenlong Wang
- College of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, China
| | - Xiaoe He
- College of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, China
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
- College of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, China
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15
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Brinkmann T, Kuhnke F, Grimm E, Knoche M. Sweet cherry flesh cells burst in non-random clusters along minor veins. PLANTA 2022; 255:100. [PMID: 35389118 PMCID: PMC8990966 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03882-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION Sweet cherry flesh cells burst when exposed to water but they do so in clusters indicating heterogeneity with respect to osmotic concentration, which depends on proximity to a minor vein. Water plays a key role in cracking in sweet cherry fruit. Magnetic resonance imaging has previously indicated preferential partitioning of water along veins. A more negative osmotic potential along veins seems the likely explanation. Here we establish if cell bursting in mature sweet cherry fruit is also associated with the veins. Cell bursting was identified by a novel light microscope technique involving exposure of a cut fruit surface to water or to sucrose solutions. Upon exposure to water there was no bursting of skin cells but for cells of the flesh (mesocarp) bursting increased with time. When the cut surface was exposed to sucrose solutions of decreasing osmotic concentrations (increasing water potentials) the incidence of cell bursting increased from hypertonic (no bursting), to isotonic, to hypotonic. Cell bursting in the outer mesocarp occurred primarily in the vicinity of minor veins that in the inner mesocarp was primarily between radial veins. The median distance between a minor vein and a bursting cell (mean diameter 0.129 mm) was about 0.318 mm that between a radial vein and a bursting cell was about 0.497 mm. In contrast, the distance between adjacent minor veins averaged 2.57 mm, that between adjacent radial veins averaged 0.83 mm. Cell bursting tends to occur in clusters. Mapping of cell bursting indicates (1) that a seemingly uniform population of mesocarp cells actually represents a heterogeneous population with regard to their cell osmotic potentials and (2) cell bursting afflicts clusters of neighbouring cells in the vicinities of minor veins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Brinkmann
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Felix Kuhnke
- Institut für Informationsverarbeitung, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Appelstr. 9a, 30167, Hannover, Germany
| | - Eckhard Grimm
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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16
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Abstract
The skin of a fruit protects the vulnerable, nutrient-rich flesh and seed(s) within from the hostile environment. It is also responsible for the fruit’s appearance. In many fruitcrop species, russeting compromises fruit appearance and thus commercial value. Here, we review the literature on fruit russeting, focusing on the factors and mechanisms that induce it and on the management and breeding strategies that may reduce it. Compared with a primary fruit skin, which is usually distinctively colored and shiny, a secondary fruit skin is reddish-brown, dull and slightly rough to the touch (i.e., russeted). This secondary skin (periderm) comprises phellem cells with suberized cell walls, a phellogen and a phelloderm. Russeted (secondary) fruit skins have similar mechanical properties to non-russeted (primary) ones but are more plastic. However, russeted fruit skins are more permeable to water vapor, so russeted fruits suffer higher postharvest water loss, reduced shine, increased shrivel and reduced packed weight (most fruit is sold per kg). Orchard factors that induce russeting include expansion-growth-induced strain, surface wetness, mechanical damage, freezing temperatures, some pests and diseases and some agrochemicals. All these probably act via an increased incidence of cuticular microcracking as a result of local concentrations of mechanical stress. Microcracking impairs the cuticle’s barrier properties. Potential triggers of russeting (the development of a periderm), consequent on cuticular microcracking, include locally high concentrations of O2, lower concentrations of CO2 and more negative water potentials. Horticulturists sometimes spray gibberellins, cytokinins or boron to reduce russeting. Bagging fruit (to exclude surface moisture) is also reportedly effective. From a breeding perspective, genotypes having small and more uniform-sized epidermal cells are judged less likely to be susceptible to russeting.
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17
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Li N, Song Y, Li J, Hao R, Feng X, Li L. Resequencing and transcriptomic analysis reveal differences in nitrite reductase in jujube fruit (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). PLANT METHODS 2021; 17:75. [PMID: 34247631 PMCID: PMC8274035 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-021-00776-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Jujube is a typical fruit tree species from China. 'Muzao', a cracking-susceptible cultivar, and 'Linhuang No. 1', a cracking-resistant cultivar, were selected in a previous study as contrasting research materials. Whole-genome resequencing and transcriptomic analysis of 'Linhuang No. 1' and 'Muzao' allowed the identification of differentially expressed genes with different gene structures between the two cultivars and could be helpful in explaining the differences and similarities between the two cultivars. RESULTS Resequencing identified 664,129 polymorphic variable sites between 'Linhuang No. 1' and 'Muzao'. To determine the genetic relationship among 'Linhuang No. 1', 'Muzao' and the jujube genome reference cultivar 'Dongzao', the characteristic polymorphic variable sites were analysed by principal component analysis. The genetic relationship between 'Linhuang No. 1' and 'Muzao' was closer than that of either variety and 'Dongzao'. Nineteen differentially expressed genes were identified by combining transcriptomic analysis with resequencing analysis. LOC107427052 (encoding a nitrite reductase) was identified by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis for further study. The identified insertion was not in the domain region of the LOC107427052 gene coding sequence (CDS) region and was verified by the finding that the insertion did not affect translation of the protein. The LOC107427052 gene expression levels, nitrite reductase activities and nitrite contents of 'Muzao' were significantly higher than the corresponding values of 'Linhuang No. 1' at the young fruit stage. There was no significant difference in the quantity of the product of nitrite reductase, namely, ammonia, between the two cultivars. CONCLUSIONS The present study was the first to explore the differences between different jujube cultivars ('Linhuang No. 1' and 'Muzao') by combining genome resequencing and transcriptomics. LOC107427052 (encoding a nitrite reductase) was characterized by KEGG enrichment analysis. The insertion in the CDS region of the LOC107427052 gene provides a new direction for the study of nitrogen metabolism in jujube. Our study has laid a foundation for the comparative analysis of nitrite metabolism between the jujube cultivars 'Linhuang No. 1' and 'Muzao'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Li
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China
| | - Yuqin Song
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China
| | - Jie Li
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China
| | - Ruijie Hao
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China
| | - Xinxin Feng
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China
| | - Liulin Li
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, China.
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18
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Quero-García J, Letourmy P, Campoy JA, Branchereau C, Malchev S, Barreneche T, Dirlewanger E. Multi-year analyses on three populations reveal the first stable QTLs for tolerance to rain-induced fruit cracking in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2021; 8:136. [PMID: 34059661 PMCID: PMC8166915 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-021-00571-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Rain-induced fruit cracking is a major problem in sweet cherry cultivation. Basic research has been conducted to disentangle the physiological and mechanistic bases of this complex phenomenon, whereas genetic studies have lagged behind. The objective of this work was to disentangle the genetic determinism of rain-induced fruit cracking. We hypothesized that a large genetic variation would be revealed, by visual field observations conducted on mapping populations derived from well-contrasted cultivars for cracking tolerance. Three populations were evaluated over 7-8 years by estimating the proportion of cracked fruits for each genotype at maturity, at three different areas of the sweet cherry fruit: pistillar end, stem end, and fruit side. An original approach was adopted to integrate, within simple linear models, covariates potentially related to cracking, such as rainfall accumulation before harvest, fruit weight, and firmness. We found the first stable quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for cherry fruit cracking, explaining percentages of phenotypic variance above 20%, for each of these three types of cracking tolerance, in different linkage groups, confirming the high complexity of this trait. For these and other QTLs, further analyses suggested the existence of at least two-linked QTLs in each linkage group, some of which showed confidence intervals close to 5 cM. These promising results open the possibility of developing marker-assisted selection strategies to select cracking-tolerant sweet cherry cultivars. Further studies are needed to confirm the stability of the reported QTLs over different genetic backgrounds and environments and to narrow down the QTL confidence intervals, allowing the exploration of underlying candidate genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Quero-García
- INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, Université de Bordeaux, UMR 1332, F-33140, Villenave d'Ornon, France.
| | - Philippe Letourmy
- CIRAD, UPR AIDA, University of Montpellier, TA B-115/02, Avenue Agropolis, 34398, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - José Antonio Campoy
- Department of Chromosome Biology, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg, 50289, Cologne, Germany
| | - Camille Branchereau
- INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, Université de Bordeaux, UMR 1332, F-33140, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Svetoslav Malchev
- Fruit Growing Institute - Plovdiv, 12 Ostromila Str., 4004, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Teresa Barreneche
- INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, Université de Bordeaux, UMR 1332, F-33140, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Elisabeth Dirlewanger
- INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, Université de Bordeaux, UMR 1332, F-33140, Villenave d'Ornon, France
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19
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Martins V, Soares C, Spormann S, Fidalgo F, Gerós H. Vineyard calcium sprays reduce the damage of postharvest grape berries by stimulating enzymatic antioxidant activity and pathogen defense genes, despite inhibiting phenolic synthesis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2021; 162:48-55. [PMID: 33667966 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Calcium supplements have been increasingly used for decay prevention, sanitation and nutritional enrichment of fruits, as more environmentally friendly alternatives to fungicides. However, little is known on the effects of these supplements on grape berry biochemical and molecular properties during storage. In this study, we addressed the hypothesis that the application of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in grapevines throughout the fruiting season reduces damage (and decay) of postharvest grape berries, through several biochemical and transcriptional modifications in sugar transport, secondary metabolism, antioxidant activity, cell wall organization and pathogen defense. Results showed that calcium (Ca) treatments in cv. "Vinhão" vines increased fruit Ca content and significantly decreased fruit damage by 60%, 10-d after storage at 4 °C. Grape berries from Ca-treated vines displayed lower levels of total phenolics and anthocyanins, compared to control fruits, corroborating the downregulation of PAL1 and STS which resulted in decreased non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity estimated by FRAP assay. In contrast, a strong upregulation of CAT1, ASPX1, ASPX3, GLPX1, CSD3 and CSD6 encoding antioxidant enzymes was observed. Accordingly, catalase enzyme activity was stimulated, significantly reducing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels by 36%. The overexpression of the cell wall and pathogen defense genes PME, PGIP, PIN and PR1 likely contributed to the reduction in fruit rot. This work suggested that preharvest Ca treatment is an efficient agronomical strategy that prolongs the shelf life of grape berries through modifications at molecular and biochemical levels, bringing further insight on the benefits and drawbacks of preharvest Ca applications on postharvest fruit quality attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Martins
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal.
| | - Cristiano Soares
- GreenUPorto - Sustainable Agrifood Production Research Centre, Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Sofia Spormann
- GreenUPorto - Sustainable Agrifood Production Research Centre, Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Fernanda Fidalgo
- GreenUPorto - Sustainable Agrifood Production Research Centre, Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Hernâni Gerós
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal; Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Department of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.
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20
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Liu CJ, Xue YL, Guo J, Ren HC, Jiang S, Li DJ, Song JF, Zhang ZY. Citric acid and sucrose pretreatment improves the crispness of puffed peach chips by regulating cell structure and mechanical properties. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Shipman EN, Yu J, Zhou J, Albornoz K, Beckles DM. Can gene editing reduce postharvest waste and loss of fruit, vegetables, and ornamentals? HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2021; 8:1. [PMID: 33384412 PMCID: PMC7775472 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-00428-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Postharvest waste and loss of horticultural crops exacerbates the agricultural problems facing humankind and will continue to do so in the next decade. Fruits and vegetables provide us with a vast spectrum of healthful nutrients, and along with ornamentals, enrich our lives with a wide array of pleasant sensory experiences. These commodities are, however, highly perishable. Approximately 33% of the produce that is harvested is never consumed since these products naturally have a short shelf-life, which leads to postharvest loss and waste. This loss, however, could be reduced by breeding new crops that retain desirable traits and accrue less damage over the course of long supply chains. New gene-editing tools promise the rapid and inexpensive production of new varieties of crops with enhanced traits more easily than was previously possible. Our aim in this review is to critically evaluate gene editing as a tool to modify the biological pathways that determine fruit, vegetable, and ornamental quality, especially after storage. We provide brief and accessible overviews of both the CRISPR-Cas9 method and the produce supply chain. Next, we survey the literature of the last 30 years, to catalog genes that control or regulate quality or senescence traits that are "ripe" for gene editing. Finally, we discuss barriers to implementing gene editing for postharvest, from the limitations of experimental methods to international policy. We conclude that in spite of the hurdles that remain, gene editing of produce and ornamentals will likely have a measurable impact on reducing postharvest loss and waste in the next 5-10 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma N Shipman
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Plant Biology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Jingwei Yu
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Graduate Group of Horticulture & Agronomy, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Jiaqi Zhou
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Graduate Group of Horticulture & Agronomy, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Karin Albornoz
- Departamento de Produccion Vegetal, Universidad de Concepcion, Region del BioBio, Concepcion, Chile.
| | - Diane M Beckles
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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22
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Khanal BP, Imoro Y, Chen YH, Straube J, Knoche M. Surface moisture increases microcracking and water vapour permeance of apple fruit skin. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2021; 23:74-82. [PMID: 32881348 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Surface moisture induces microcracking in the cuticle of fruit skins. Our objective was to study the effects of surface moisture on cuticular microcracking, the permeance to water vapour and russeting in developing 'Pinova' apple fruit. Surface moisture was applied by fixing to the fruit a plastic tube containing deionized water. Microcracking was quantified by fluorescence microscopy and image analysis following infiltration with acridine orange. Water vapour permeance was determined gravimetrically using skin segments (ES) mounted in diffusion cells. Cumulative water loss through the ES increased linearly with time. Throughout development, surface moisture significantly increased skin permeance. The effect was largest during early development and decreased towards maturity. Recovery time courses revealed that following moisture treatment of young fruit for 12 days, skin permeance continued to increase until about 14 days after terminating the moisture treatment. Thereafter, skin permeance decreased over the next 28 days, then approaching the control level. This behaviour indicates gradual healing of the impaired cuticular barrier. Nevertheless, permeance still remained significantly higher compared with the untreated control. Similar patterns of permeance change were observed following moisture treatments at later stages of development. The early moisture treatment beginning at 23 DAFB resulted in russeting of the exposed surfaces. There was no russet in control fruit without a tube or in control fruit with a tube mounted for 12 days without water. The data demonstrate that surface moisture increases microcracking and water vapour permeance. This may lead to the formation of a periderm and, hence, a russeted fruit surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- B P Khanal
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Y Imoro
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Y H Chen
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Germany
| | - J Straube
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Germany
| | - M Knoche
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Germany
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Schumann C, Sitzenstock S, Erz L, Knoche M. Decreased deposition and increased swelling of cell walls contribute to increased cracking susceptibility of developing sweet cherry fruit. PLANTA 2020; 252:96. [PMID: 33141346 PMCID: PMC7609435 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-020-03494-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
During fruit development, cell wall deposition rate decreases and cell wall swelling increases. The cell wall swelling pressure is very low relative to the fruit's highly negative osmotic potential. Rain cracking of sweet cherry fruit is preceded by the swelling of the cell walls. Cell wall swelling decreases both the cell: cell adhesion and the cell wall fracture force. Rain cracking susceptibility increases during fruit development. The objectives were to relate developmental changes in cell wall swelling to compositional changes taking place in the cell wall. During fruit development, total mass of cell wall, of pectins and of hemicelluloses increases, but total mass of cellulose remains constant. The mass of these cell wall fractions increases at a lower rate than the fruit fresh mass-particularly during stage II and early stage III. During stage III, on a whole-fruit basis, the HCl-soluble pectin fraction, followed by the water-soluble pectin fraction, the NaOH-soluble pectin fraction and the oxalate-soluble pectin fraction all increase. At maturity, just the HCl-soluble pectin decreases. Cell wall swelling increases during stages I and II of fruit development, with little change thereafter. This was indexed by light microscopy of skin sections following turgor release, and by determinations of the swelling capacity, water holding capacity and water retention capacity. The increase in cell wall swelling during development was due primarily to increases in NaOH-soluble pectins. The in vitro swelling of cell wall extracts depends on the applied pressure. The swelling pressure of the alcohol-insoluble residue is low throughout development and surprisingly similar across different cell wall fractions. Thus, swelling pressure does not contribute significantly to fruit water potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Schumann
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Simon Sitzenstock
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lisa Erz
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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24
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Yu J, Zhu M, Bai M, Xu Y, Fan S, Yang G. Effect of calcium on relieving berry cracking in grape ( Vitis vinifera L.) 'Xiangfei'. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9896. [PMID: 32983645 PMCID: PMC7500324 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fruit cracking is a physiological disorder in many plant species that leads to severe economic losses. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of calcium on fruit cracking and explore the underlying mechanisms. We studied the effect of exogenous calcium on grape berry cracking, calcium absorbance and distribution, and cell wall metabolism in the cracking-susceptible cultivar ‘Xiangfei’. Calcium significantly reduced the frequency of fruit cracking, increased the break force of the berry skin, and stimulated storage of calcium. In addition, calcium increased the content of protopectin and inhibited the increase in content of water-soluble pectin, by regulating the transcription and activities of enzymes associated with cell wall metabolism. Taken together, the results indicated that dipping grape berries in calcium solution is effective in preventing fruit cracking by stimulating calcium uptake, inhibiting cell wall disassembly, and promoting cell wall strengthening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yu
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology, Loudi, China.,Engineering Research Center for Horticultural Crop Germplasm Creation and New Variety Breeding, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
| | - Mingtao Zhu
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology, Loudi, China
| | - Miao Bai
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Engineering Research Center for Horticultural Crop Germplasm Creation and New Variety Breeding, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
| | - Yanshuai Xu
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Engineering Research Center for Horticultural Crop Germplasm Creation and New Variety Breeding, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
| | - Shaogang Fan
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Engineering Research Center for Horticultural Crop Germplasm Creation and New Variety Breeding, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
| | - Guoshun Yang
- Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.,Engineering Research Center for Horticultural Crop Germplasm Creation and New Variety Breeding, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
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25
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Russeting in 'Apple' Mango: Triggers and Mechanisms. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9070898. [PMID: 32708628 PMCID: PMC7411629 DOI: 10.3390/plants9070898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Russeting is an important surface disorder of many fruitcrop species. The mango cultivar ‘Apple’ is especially susceptible to russeting. Russeting compromises both fruit appearance and postharvest performance. The objective was to identify factors, mechanisms, and consequences of russeting in ‘Apple’ mango. Russeting was quantified on excised peels using image analysis and a categorical rating scheme. Water vapour loss was determined gravimetrically. The percentage of the skin area exhibiting russet increased during development. Russet began at lenticels then spread across the surface, ultimately forming a network of rough, brown patches over the skin. Cross-sections revealed stacks of phellem cells, typical of a periderm. Russet was more severe on the dorsal surface of the fruit than on the ventral and more for fruit in the upper part of the canopy than in the lower. Russet differed markedly across orchards sites of different climates. Russet was positively correlated with altitude, the number of rainy days, and the number of cold nights but negatively correlated with minimum, maximum, and mean daily temperatures, dew point temperature, and heat sum. Russeted fruit had higher transpiration rates than non-russeted fruits and higher skin permeance to water vapour. Russet in ‘Apple’ mango is due to periderm formation that is initiated at lenticels. Growing conditions conducive for surface wetness exacerbate russeting.
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26
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Martins V, Garcia A, Alhinho AT, Costa P, Lanceros-Méndez S, Costa MMR, Gerós H. Vineyard calcium sprays induce changes in grape berry skin, firmness, cell wall composition and expression of cell wall-related genes. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2020; 150:49-55. [PMID: 32114399 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Having a central role in cell wall pectin cross-linking, calcium has been increasingly used as supplement to promote fruit firmness and extended shelf-life. However, the molecular rearrangements associated to increased fruit robustness are still a matter of debate. In this study, mechanical, histochemical and molecular assays were conducted to understand the mechanisms underlying the effects of Ca in fruit physical properties. In a two-year field trial, grapevines were sprayed with exogenous CaCl2 throughout the fruiting season. Results showed an increase in berry Ca concentration at harvest, associated to increased fruit consistency and skin resistance. Scanning electron microscopy showed that fruits from Ca-treated plants had smoother skin surfaces than control fruits, and that microcracks encircling the lenticels were less prominent. Histochemistry assays suggested higher deposition of pectin-like material in skin cell walls in grapes from Ca-treated vines, but no evident modifications in cellulose content were observed. Accordingly, the expression of cellulose synthase family gene CesA3 was not affected by exogenous Ca, while polygalacturonase-encoding genes PG1 and PG2 were downregulated, together with EXP6 belonging to expansin family, and CER9 and CYP15 involved in cuticle biosynthesis. These results suggested that Ca acts by inhibiting pectin degradation and cell wall loosening, while remodeling cuticle structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Martins
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal.
| | - Ana Garcia
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Ana T Alhinho
- BioSystems & Integrative Sciences Institute (BioISI), Plant Functional Biology Centre, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Pedro Costa
- Center of Physics, Department of Physics, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; Institute for Polymers and Composites IPC/i3N, University of Minho, 4800-058, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez
- Center of Physics, Department of Physics, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940, Leioa, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013, Bilbao, Spain
| | - M Manuela R Costa
- BioSystems & Integrative Sciences Institute (BioISI), Plant Functional Biology Centre, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Hernâni Gerós
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal; Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Department of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
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27
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Transcriptome analysis of metabolisms related to fruit cracking during ripening of a cracking-susceptible grape berry cv. Xiangfei (Vitis vinifera L.). Genes Genomics 2020; 42:639-650. [PMID: 32274647 DOI: 10.1007/s13258-020-00930-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Grape is an economically valuable fruit around the world. However, some cultivars are prone to fruit cracking during ripening, leading to severe losses. OBJECTIVE We aimed to find important metabolisms related to fruit cracking during ripening process. METHODS RNA-Sequence and analysis was applied to the pericarp of cracking-susceptible 'Xiang Fei' at 1 (W1), 2 (W2) and 3 weeks (W3) after veraison on Illumina HiSeq xten; RESULTS: Compared with W1, the berry cracking rate increased significantly in W2 and W3. Through transcriptomic analysis, a total of 22,609 genes were expressed in the grape pericarp, among which 805 and 2758 genes were significantly differentially regulated in W1-vs.-W2 and W1-vs.-W3 comparison, respectively. Besides, 304 and 354 genes were up- and down-regulated in both comparisons. The significantly enriched GO terms of both W1-W2 and W1-W3 are related to cell wall and wax biosynthesis. And lipid metabolism, which are involved in the top 20 enriched KEGG pathways of both comparisons, was related to wax biosynthesis. Further, GO enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with same regulatory changes also indicated that the continuously up-regulated DEGs are significantly enriched in cell wall component biosynthesis and hydrolase. CONCLUSION These findings suggested that genes related to cell wall metabolism and cuticle biosynthesis may play important roles in regulating grape berry cracking. Our results provide a reference for further studies on the molecular mechanism underlying fruit cracking.
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28
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Grimm E, Pflugfelder D, Hahn J, Schmidt MJ, Dieckmann H, Knoche M. Spatial heterogeneity of flesh-cell osmotic potential in sweet cherry affects partitioning of absorbed water. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:51. [PMID: 32257237 PMCID: PMC7109129 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-0274-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A fleshy fruit is commonly assumed to resemble a thin-walled pressure vessel containing a homogenous carbohydrate solution. Using sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) as a model system, we investigate how local differences in cell water potential affect H2O and D2O (heavy water) partitioning. The partitioning of H2O and D2O was mapped non-destructively using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The change in size of mesocarp cells due to water movement was monitored by optical coherence tomography (OCT, non-destructive). Osmotic potential was mapped using micro-osmometry (destructive). Virtual sections through the fruit revealed that the H2O distribution followed a net pattern in the outer mesocarp and a radial pattern in the inner mesocarp. These patterns align with the disposition of the vascular bundles. D2O uptake through the skin paralleled the acropetal gradient in cell osmotic potential gradient (from less negative to more negative). Cells in the vicinity of a vascular bundle were of more negative osmotic potential than cells more distant from a vascular bundle. OCT revealed net H2O uptake was the result of some cells loosing volume and other cells increasing volume. H2O and D2O partitioning following uptake is non-uniform and related to the spatial heterogeneity in the osmotic potential of mesocarp cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eckhard Grimm
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Abteilung Obstbau, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Daniel Pflugfelder
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, IBG-2: Pflanzenwissenschaften, Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, D-52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Jan Hahn
- Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V., Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Jonathan Schmidt
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Abteilung Obstbau, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Hendrik Dieckmann
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Abteilung Obstbau, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Abteilung Obstbau, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
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29
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Schumann C, Knoche M. Swelling of cell walls in mature sweet cherry fruit: factors and mechanisms. PLANTA 2020; 251:65. [PMID: 32060652 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-020-03352-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Swelling of sweet cherry cell walls is a physical process counterbalanced by turgor. Cell turgor prevents swelling in intact cells, whereas loss of turgor allows cell walls to swell. Swelling of epidermal cell walls precedes skin failure in sweet cherry (Prunus avium) cracking. Swollen cell walls lead to diminished cell:cell adhesions. We identify the mechanism of cell wall swelling. Swelling was quantified microscopically on epidermal sections following freeze/thaw treatment or by determining swelling pressure or swelling capacity of cell wall extracts. Releasing turgor by a freeze/thaw treatment increased cell wall thickness 1.6-fold within 2 h. Pressurizing cell wall extracts at > 12 kPa prevented swelling in water, while releasing the pressure increased swelling. The effect was fully reversible. Across cultivars, cell wall thickness before and after turgor release in two subsequent seasons was significantly correlated (before release of turgor: r = 0.71**, n = 14; after release of turgor: r = 0.73**, n = 14) as was the swelling of cell walls upon turgor release (r = 0.71**, n = 14). Close relationships were also identified for cell wall thickness of fruit of the same cultivars grown in the greenhouse and the field (before release of turgor: r = 0.60, n = 10; after release of turgor: r = 0.78**, n = 10). Release of turgor by heating, plasmolysis, incubation in solvents or surfactants resulted in similar swelling (range 2.0-3.1 µm). Cell wall swelling increased from 1.4 to 3.0 µm as pH increased from pH 2.0 to 5.0 but remained nearly constant between pH 5.0 and 8.0. Increasing ethanol concentration decreased swelling. Swelling of sweet cherry cell walls is a physical process counterbalanced by turgor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Schumann
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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30
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Schumann C, Winkler A, Brüggenwirth M, Köpcke K, Knoche M. Crack initiation and propagation in sweet cherry skin: A simple chain reaction causes the crack to 'run'. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219794. [PMID: 31365556 PMCID: PMC6668808 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Rain cracking severely affects the commercial production of many fleshy-fruit species, including of sweet cherries. The objectives were to investigate how the gaping macroscopic cracks (macrocracks) of a rain-cracked fruit can develop from microscopic cracks in the cuticle (microcracks). Incubating fruit in deionized water is well known to cause significant macrocracking. We found that after a lag phase of 2 h, the numbers and lengths of macrocracks increased. Macrocrack number approached an asymptote at 12 h, whereas macrocrack length continued to increase. The rate of macrocrack propagation (extension at the crack tip) was initially 10.8 mm h-1 but then decreased to a near-constant 0.5 mm h-1. Light microscopy revealed three characteristic zones along a developing macrocrack. In zone I (ahead of the crack), the cuticle was intact, the epidermal cells were unbroken and their cell walls were thin. In zone II, the cuticle was fractured, the first epidermal cells died and their cell walls began to thicken (swell). In zone III, most epidermal cells had died, their cell walls were swollen and cell:cell separation began along the middle lamellae. The thickness of the anticlinal epidermal cell walls and the percentage of intact living cells along a crack were closely and negatively related. Cracks were stained by calcofluor white, but there was no binding of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for hemicelluloses (LM11, LM21, LM25). Strong binding was obtained with the anti-homogalacturonan mAb (LM19), indicating the presence of unesterified homogalacturonans on the crack surface. We conclude that macrocrack propagation is related to cell death and to cell wall swelling. Cell wall swelling weakens the cell:cell adhesion between neighbouring epidermal cells, which separate along their middle lamellae. The skin macrocrack propagates like a 'run' in a fine, knitted fabric.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Schumann
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Winkler
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Brüggenwirth
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kevin Köpcke
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institute for Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz-University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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31
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Grimm E, Hahn J, Pflugfelder D, Schmidt MJ, van Dusschoten D, Knoche M. Localized bursting of mesocarp cells triggers catastrophic fruit cracking. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2019; 6:79. [PMID: 31263563 PMCID: PMC6588568 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-019-0161-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The so-called rain-cracking of sweet cherry fruit severely threatens commercial production. Simple observation tells us that cuticular microcracking (invisible) always precedes skin macrocracking (visible). The objective here was to investigate how a macrocrack develops. Incubating detached sweet cherry fruit in deionized water induces microcracking. Incubating fruit in D2O and concurrent magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates that water penetration occurs only (principally) through the microcracks, with nondetectable amounts penetrating the intact cuticle. Optical coherence tomography of detached, whole fruit incubated in deionized water, allowed generation of virtual cross-sections through the zone of a developing macrocrack. Outer mesocarp cell volume increased before macrocracks developed but increased at a markedly higher rate thereafter. Little change in mesocarp cell volume occurred in a control zone distant from the crack. As water incubation continued, the cell volume in the crack zone decreased, indicating leaking/bursting of individual mesocarp cells. As incubation continued still longer, the crack propagated between cells both to form a long, deep macrocrack. Outer mesocarp cell turgor did not differ significantly before and after incubation between fruit with or without macrocracks; nor between cells within the crack zone and those in a control zone distant from the macrocrack. The cumulative frequency distribution of the log-transformed turgor pressure of a population of outer mesocarp cells reveals all cell turgor data followed a normal distribution. The results demonstrate that microcracks develop into macrocracks following the volume increase of a few outer mesocarp cells and is soon accompanied by cell bursting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eckhard Grimm
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Jan Hahn
- Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V., Hollerithallee 8, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Daniel Pflugfelder
- IBG-2: Pflanzenwissenschaften, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Moritz Jonathan Schmidt
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Dagmar van Dusschoten
- IBG-2: Pflanzenwissenschaften, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Abteilung Obstbau, Institut für Gartenbauliche Produktionssysteme, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
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32
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Petit J, Bres C, Mauxion JP, Bakan B, Rothan C. Breeding for cuticle-associated traits in crop species: traits, targets, and strategies. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:5369-5387. [PMID: 29036305 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Improving crop productivity and quality while promoting sustainable agriculture have become major goals in plant breeding. The cuticle is a natural film covering the aerial organs of plants and consists of lipid polyesters covered and embedded with wax. The cuticle protects plants against water loss and pathogens and affects traits with strong impacts on crop quality such as, for horticultural crops, fruit brightness, cracking, russeting, netting, and shelf life. Here we provide an overview of the most important cuticle-associated traits that can be targeted for crop improvement. To date, most studies on cuticle-associated traits aimed at crop breeding have been done on fleshy fruits. Less information is available for staple crops such as rice, wheat or maize. Here we present new insights into cuticle formation and properties resulting from the study of genetic resources available for the various crop species. Our review also covers the current strategies and tools aimed at exploiting available natural and artificially induced genetic diversity and the technologies used to transfer the beneficial alleles affecting cuticle-associated traits to commercial varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Petit
- UMR 1332 BFP, INRA, Univ. Bordeaux, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Cécile Bres
- UMR 1332 BFP, INRA, Univ. Bordeaux, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | | | | | - Christophe Rothan
- UMR 1332 BFP, INRA, Univ. Bordeaux, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
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