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Tan Z, Wang L, Li X. Composition and regulation of the immune microenvironment of salivary gland in Sjögren’s syndrome. Front Immunol 2022; 13:967304. [PMID: 36177010 PMCID: PMC9513852 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.967304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by exocrine gland dysfunction and inflammation. Patients often have dry mouth and dry eye symptoms, which seriously affect their lives. Improving dry mouth and eye symptoms has become a common demand from patients. For this reason, researchers have conducted many studies on external secretory glands. In this paper, we summarize recent studies on the salivary glands of pSS patients from the perspective of the immune microenvironment. These studies showed that hypoxia, senescence, and chronic inflammation are the essential characteristics of the salivary gland immune microenvironment. In the SG of pSS, genes related to lymphocyte chemotaxis, antigen presentation, and lymphocyte activation are upregulated. Interferon (IFN)-related genes, DNA methylation, sRNA downregulation, and mitochondrial-related differentially expressed genes are also involved in forming the immune microenvironment of pSS, while multiple signaling pathways are involved in regulation. We further elucidated the regulation of the salivary gland immune microenvironment in pSS and relevant, targeted treatments.
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Gleerup HS, Jensen CS, Høgh P, Hasselbalch SG, Simonsen AH. Lactoferrin in cerebrospinal fluid and saliva is not a diagnostic biomarker for Alzheimer's disease in a mixed memory clinic population. EBioMedicine 2021; 67:103361. [PMID: 33975253 PMCID: PMC8122152 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathological changes in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative disorders begin decades prior to their clinical expression. However, the clinical diagnosis of neurodegenerative dementias is not straightforward. Lactoferrin is an iron-binding, antimicrobial glycoprotein with a plethora of functions, including acting as an important immune modulator and by having a bacteriocidic effect. Two previous studies indicated that salivary lactoferrin could differentiate between neurodegenerative dementias. METHODS A total of 222 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and saliva samples from a consecutive, mixed memory clinic population were analysed for lactoferrin. In addition, the association between lactoferrin in CSF and saliva and the concentration of tau, phosphorylated tau (p-tau) and amyloid 1-42 (Aβ42) in CSF were addressed. FINDINGS CSF lactoferrin was assessed for the first time in a cohort of patients with neurodegenerative dementias. No significant differences were found in the levels of CSF or saliva lactoferrin between the diagnostic groups. In addition, no significant relationships were found between lactoferrin levels and tau, p-tau and Aβ42, respectively. INTERPRETATION Neither CSF nor saliva lactoferrin could differentiate between neurodegenerative dementias in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Sophia Gleerup
- Department of Neurology, Danish Dementia Research Centre (DDRC), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark.
| | - Camilla Steen Jensen
- Department of Neurology, Danish Dementia Research Centre (DDRC), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark
| | - Peter Høgh
- Regional Dementia Research Centre, Department of Neurology, Zealand University Hospital, Roskilde, Denmark; Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Steen Gregers Hasselbalch
- Department of Neurology, Danish Dementia Research Centre (DDRC), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark; Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anja Hviid Simonsen
- Department of Neurology, Danish Dementia Research Centre (DDRC), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark
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Gomez-Casado C, Sanchez-Solares J, Izquierdo E, Díaz-Perales A, Barber D, Escribese MM. Oral Mucosa as a Potential Site for Diagnosis and Treatment of Allergic and Autoimmune Diseases. Foods 2021; 10:970. [PMID: 33925074 PMCID: PMC8146604 DOI: 10.3390/foods10050970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Most prevalent food allergies during early childhood are caused by foods with a high allergenic protein content, such as milk, egg, nuts, or fish. In older subjects, some respiratory allergies progressively lead to food-induced allergic reactions, which can be severe, such as urticaria or asthma. Oral mucosa remodeling has been recently proven to be a feature of severe allergic phenotypes and autoimmune diseases. This remodeling process includes epithelial barrier disruption and the release of inflammatory signals. Although little is known about the immune processes taking place in the oral mucosa, there are a few reports describing the oral mucosa-associated immune system. In this review, we will provide an overview of the recent knowledge about the role of the oral mucosa in food-induced allergic reactions, as well as in severe respiratory allergies or food-induced autoimmune diseases, such as celiac disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Gomez-Casado
- Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University, 28003 Madrid, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (E.I.); (D.B.); (M.M.E.)
| | - Javier Sanchez-Solares
- Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University, 28003 Madrid, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (E.I.); (D.B.); (M.M.E.)
| | - Elena Izquierdo
- Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University, 28003 Madrid, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (E.I.); (D.B.); (M.M.E.)
| | - Araceli Díaz-Perales
- Center of Plant Biotechnology and Genomics, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Domingo Barber
- Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University, 28003 Madrid, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (E.I.); (D.B.); (M.M.E.)
| | - María M. Escribese
- Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University, 28003 Madrid, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (E.I.); (D.B.); (M.M.E.)
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Moreno-Quispe LA, Serrano J, Virto L, Sanz M, Ramírez L, Fernández-Castro M, Hernández G, López-Pintor RM. Association of salivary inflammatory biomarkers with primary Sjögren's syndrome. J Oral Pathol Med 2020; 49:940-947. [PMID: 32538490 DOI: 10.1111/jop.13070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Primary Sjogren's syndrome (pSS) is an autoimmune disease that leads to salivary and lacrimal gland dysfunction. The adaptive immune response associated with T helper-2 lymphocytes appears to be altered in these patients. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the salivary levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-5, and IL-4 in patients with pSS when compared to a healthy control (HC) group. The secondary objectives were to study whether ILs levels in pSS patients were associated with salivary flow, patient-reported outcomes (PROMs) for xerostomia and oral health quality of life (Oral Health Impact Profile-14 [OHIP-14]), pSS classification criteria and presence of extraglandular manifestations. METHODS A case-control study was conducted in 36 patients with pSS and 35 HCs. Cytokine levels were measured using high-sensitivity multiplex map human immunoassays. Unstimulated and stimulated whole saliva were collected and patients filled out questionnaires. The Mann-Whitney U test, chi-squared test, and Spearman correlation test were used. RESULTS Interleukin-6 was significantly higher in pSS patients than in HCs (P = .0001). IL-6 was significantly higher in pSS patients with a positive salivary gland biopsy (P = .04), whole stimulated saliva hyposalivation (P = .02), and presence of musculoskeletal disorders (P = .03). There was a non-significant positive correlation between IL-6 levels and PROMs for xerostomia (r = .31; P = .06) and OHIP-14 (r = .07; P = .68) in pSS patients. Levels of IL-4 and IL-5 were not detected in both pSS and HCs patients. CONCLUSIONS Salivary IL-6 levels are significantly associated with pSS patients, and therefore, it is hypothesized that this biomarker may be useful in the diagnosis and follow-up of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz A Moreno-Quispe
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain.,Universidad Nacional de Frontera, Piura, Peru
| | - Julia Serrano
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, ORALMED Research Group, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Leire Virto
- Researcher, Etiology and Therapy of Periodontal Diseases (ETEP) Research Group, Complutense University and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariano Sanz
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lucía Ramírez
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, ORALMED Research Group, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Gonzalo Hernández
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, ORALMED Research Group, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa María López-Pintor
- Department of Dental Clinical Specialties, ORALMED Research Group, School of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
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Hung YH, Lee YH, Chen PP, Lin YZ, Lin CH, Yen JH. Role of Salivary Immune Parameters in Patients With Primary Sjögren's Syndrome. Ann Lab Med 2018; 39:76-80. [PMID: 30215233 PMCID: PMC6143464 DOI: 10.3343/alm.2019.39.1.76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Revised: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Several factors, including clinical manifestations and laboratory data, have been used to evaluate the disease activity of Sjögren's syndrome (SS). We investigated saliva indicators of disease activity in primary SS patients. Methods We enrolled 138 Taiwanese patients with primary SS and 100 Taiwanese normal controls. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-17A, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and rheumatoid factor (RF)-IgA levels in saliva samples were measured using ELISA or fluorescent enzyme-linked immunoassay. Serum IgG, IgA, and IgM levels were measured by nephelometry. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) was measured with an automatic ESR analyzer. The t-test and Pearson correlation test were used. Results IL-6 level was higher in primary SS patients than in normal controls (14.23±14.77 vs 9.87±7.32, P=0.012), but there were no significant differences in IL-17A, TNF-α, and RF-IgA levels. In primary SS patients, IL-6 level correlated weakly with ESR and IgG levels (r=0.252, P=0.015, and r=0.248, P=0.017, respectively), and TNF-α level correlated weakly with IgG level (r=0.231, P=0.024). Conclusions IL-6 may play a role in SS pathogenesis. Saliva IL-6 might be an indicator of disease activity in primary SS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Hung Hung
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Yung Hung Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Pei Pei Chen
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Yuan Zhao Lin
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Chia Hui Lin
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Jeng Hsien Yen
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan.
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Abstract
Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a complex and heterogeneous disorder characterized by different clinical subsets. Recently, great efforts have been made searching for reliable biomarkers able to ameliorate the diagnostic algorithm and the prognostic stratification of pSS patients and ultimately allowing the scientific community to address some of the unmet needs for the disease. In this review, we have summarized the state of the art of 'traditional' widely acknowledged clinical, serological and histologic biomarkers for pSS with the aim of highlighting their relevance and limitations in clinical practice. We have also explored some of the novel potential biomarkers that have been proposed more recently, potentially able to open new ways in the assessment of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Baldini
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126, Italy
| | - Francesco Ferro
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126, Italy
| | - Elena Elefante
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126, Italy
| | - Stefano Bombardieri
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126, Italy
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Alani H, Henty JR, Thompson NL, Jury E, Ciurtin C. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the epidemiology of polyautoimmunity in Sjögren’s syndrome (secondary Sjögren’s syndrome) focusing on autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Scand J Rheumatol 2017; 47:141-154. [DOI: 10.1080/03009742.2017.1324909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H Alani
- Department of Rheumatology, Kettering General Hospital, Kettering, UK
| | - JR Henty
- Department of Medical Physics, University College London, London, UK
| | - NL Thompson
- Department of Rheumatology, University College London, London, UK
| | - E Jury
- Department of Rheumatology, University College London, London, UK
| | - C Ciurtin
- Department of Rheumatology, University College London, London, UK
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Martinez G, Majster M, Bjurshammar N, Johannsen A, Figueredo C, Boström E. Salivary Colony Stimulating Factor-1 and Interleukin-34 in Periodontal Disease. J Periodontol 2017; 88:e140-e149. [DOI: 10.1902/jop.2017.170081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G.L. Martinez
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Odontology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M. Majster
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - N. Bjurshammar
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - A. Johannsen
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - C.M. Figueredo
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Odontology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - E.A. Boström
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
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Kaczor-Urbanowicz KE, Martin Carreras-Presas C, Aro K, Tu M, Garcia-Godoy F, Wong DT. Saliva diagnostics - Current views and directions. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 242:459-472. [PMID: 27903834 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216681550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we provide an update on the current and future applications of saliva for diagnostic purposes. There are many advantages of using saliva as a biofluid. Its collection is fast, easy, inexpensive, and non-invasive. In addition, saliva, as a "mirror of the body," can reflect the physiological and pathological state of the body. Therefore, it serves as a diagnostic and monitoring tool in many fields of science such as medicine, dentistry, and pharmacotherapy. Introduced in 2008, the term "Salivaomics" aimed to highlight the rapid development of knowledge about various "omics" constituents of saliva, including: proteome, transcriptome, micro-RNA, metabolome, and microbiome. In the last few years, researchers have developed new technologies and validated a wide range of salivary biomarkers that will soon make the use of saliva a clinical reality. However, a great need still exists for convenient and accurate point-of-care devices that can serve as a non-invasive diagnostic tool. In addition, there is an urgent need to decipher the scientific rationale and mechanisms that convey systemic diseases to saliva. Another promising technology called liquid biopsy enables detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and fragments of tumor DNA in saliva, thus enabling non-invasive early detection of various cancers. The newly developed technology-electric field-induced release and measurement (EFIRM) provides near perfect detection of actionable mutations in lung cancer patients. These recent advances widened the salivary diagnostic approach from the oral cavity to the whole physiological system, and thus point towards a promising future of salivary diagnostics for personalized individual medicine applications including clinical decisions and post-treatment outcome predictions. Impact statement The purpose of this mini-review is to make an update about the present and future applications of saliva as a diagnostic biofluid in many fields of science such as dentistry, medicine and pharmacotherapy. Using saliva as a fluid for diagnostic purposes would be a huge breakthrough for both patients and healthcare providers since saliva collection is easy, non-invasive and inexpensive. We will go through the current main diagnostic applications of saliva, and provide a highlight on the emerging, newly developing technologies and tools for cancer screening, detection and monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Katri Aro
- 1 School of Dentistry, Center for Oral/Head & Neck Oncology Research, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Michael Tu
- 1 School of Dentistry, Center for Oral/Head & Neck Oncology Research, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Franklin Garcia-Godoy
- 3 College of Dentistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Bioscience Research Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - David Tw Wong
- 1 School of Dentistry, Center for Oral/Head & Neck Oncology Research, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Abstract
One of the main characteristics of primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is chronic dysfunction and destruction of the salivary and lacrimal glands; their secretory biofluids should reflect the glandular biological status. Saliva is a heterogeneous biofluid comprised of biomolecules and omics constituents that are altered in response to various diseases. Scientific effort has evaluated saliva proteome to diagnose, monitor, and prognosticate pSS. This article reviews the recent advances in salivary proteomics in the context of pSS, highlighting the most significant and promising findings. Determining saliva as a credible means of early disease detection could lead to translational advantages and significant clinical opportunities for pSS.
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Brogden KA, Johnson GK, Vincent SD, Abbasi T, Vali S. Oral inflammation, a role for antimicrobial peptide modulation of cytokine and chemokine responses. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:1097-113. [DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.836059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Boghori M, Aghamaali M, Sariri R, Mohamadpour F, Ghafouri H. Salivary enzymes and flow rate: Markers of peptic ulcer. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2014; 4:24-9. [PMID: 25737915 PMCID: PMC4252638 DOI: 10.1016/j.jobcr.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Peptic ulcers are among the most common and most costly diseases known to human. Its diagnosis in the early stages would have great benefit in treatment of the disease. The aim of this study was to compare alternations of enzymes activity in salivary fluid between patients with peptic ulcer disease and healthy controls. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two groups each composed of 26 subjects (13 male and 13 female) patients with peptic and healthy controls entered. Activities of selective salivary enzymes were assayed by a spectrophotometeric method. RESULTS The results showed significant increased activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) as well as total salivary protein (TSP) concentration in peptic ulcer patients as compared to control group. However, the enzymatic activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) also increased in peptic ulcer patients as compared to healthy control, but not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS Based on the obtained results it was concluded that peptic ulcer may be early diagnosed by detecting activity of salivary enzymes. Therefore the saliva can be suggested as a diagnostic fluid.
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Computational prediction of human salivary proteins from blood circulation and application to diagnostic biomarker identification. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80211. [PMID: 24324552 PMCID: PMC3855806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteins can move from blood circulation into salivary glands through active transportation, passive diffusion or ultrafiltration, some of which are then released into saliva and hence can potentially serve as biomarkers for diseases if accurately identified. We present a novel computational method for predicting salivary proteins that come from circulation. The basis for the prediction is a set of physiochemical and sequence features we found to be discerning between human proteins known to be movable from circulation to saliva and proteins deemed to be not in saliva. A classifier was trained based on these features using a support-vector machine to predict protein secretion into saliva. The classifier achieved 88.56% average recall and 90.76% average precision in 10-fold cross-validation on the training data, indicating that the selected features are informative. Considering the possibility that our negative training data may not be highly reliable (i.e., proteins predicted to be not in saliva), we have also trained a ranking method, aiming to rank the known salivary proteins from circulation as the highest among the proteins in the general background, based on the same features. This prediction capability can be used to predict potential biomarker proteins for specific human diseases when coupled with the information of differentially expressed proteins in diseased versus healthy control tissues and a prediction capability for blood-secretory proteins. Using such integrated information, we predicted 31 candidate biomarker proteins in saliva for breast cancer.
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Silveira ML, Chattopadhyay A. Need for an Ethical Framework for Testing for Systemic Diseases in Dental Clinics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 2:115-136. [PMID: 24600534 DOI: 10.1615/ethicsbiologyengmed.2012004545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Testing for systemic diseases in dental clinics is a potentially attractive avenue for oral health professionals and may be viewed as an opportunity to increase professional reach, expand practice, and improve financial returns. However, several ethical questions arise that must be addressed before such activities are adopted. (1) What should be the level of training dentists must acquire to deal with challenges associated with testing? (2) How well are dental practices aware of and compliant with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and procedures related to informed consent? (3) What is the evidence regarding acceptability and effectiveness of testing? (4) What should be the acceptable standard of practice for conduct of invasive and noninvasive tests? (5) What is the boundary delineating "testing" and "reporting" vis-à-vis counseling? (6) What is the value of testing without counseling? (7) What assurances need to be in place to ensure voluntariness of testing? (8) How would data from testing be used in "research," especially with the growth of practice based research networks? and (9) Does the American Dental Association Code of Ethics need to incorporate guidance for practicing dentists? We discuss how ethical principles can be used to develop a framework of guidelines for potential testing for systemic diseases in dental clinics..
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amit Chattopadhyay
- Office of Science Policy and Analysis National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
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Abstract
For the past two decades, salivary diagnostic approaches have been developed to monitor oral diseases such as periodontal diseases and to assess caries risk. Recently, the combination of emerging biotechnologies and salivary diagnostics has extended the range of saliva-based diagnostics from the oral cavity to the whole physiologic system as most compounds found in blood are also present in saliva. Accordingly, saliva can reflect the physiologic state of the body, including emotional, endocrinal, nutritional and metabolic variations and acts as a source for the monitoring of oral and also systemic health. This review presents an update on the status of saliva diagnostics and delves into their applications to the discovery of biomarkers for cancer detection and therapeutic applications. Translating scientific findings of nucleic acids, proteins and metabolites in body fluids to clinical applications is a cumbersome and challenging journey. Our research group is pursuing the biology of salivary analytes and the development of technologies for detection of distinct biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. The avenue of saliva diagnostics incorporating transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic findings will enable us to connect salivary molecular analytes to monitor therapies, therapeutic outcomes, and finally disease progression in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Spielmann
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of Interferons. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:1162-1186. [PMID: 27713294 PMCID: PMC4034027 DOI: 10.3390/ph3041162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2010] [Revised: 04/03/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are class II cytokines that are key components of the innate immune response to virus infection. Three IFN sub-families, type I, II, and III IFNs have been identified in man, Recombinant analogues of type I IFNs, in particular IFNα2 and IFNβ1, have found wide application for the treatment of chronic viral hepatitis and remitting relapsing multiple sclerosis respectively. Type II IFN, or IFN gamma, is used principally for the treatment of chronic granulomatous disease, while the recently discovered type III IFNs, also known as IFN lambda or IL-28/29, are currently being evaluated for the treatment of chronic viral hepatitis. IFNs are in general well tolerated and the most common adverse events observed with IFNα or IFNβ therapy are “flu-like” symptoms such as fever, headache, chills, and myalgia. Prolonged treatment is associated with more serious adverse events including leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, increased hepatic transaminases, and neuropsychiatric effects. Type I IFNs bind to high-affinity cell surface receptors, composed of two transmembrane polypeptides IFNAR1 and IFNAR2, resulting in activation of the Janus kinases Jak1 and Tyk2, phosphorylation and activation of the latent cytoplasmic signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT1) and STAT2, formation of a transcription complex together with IRF9, and activation of a specific set of genes that encode the effector molecules responsible for mediating the biological activities of type I IFNs. Systemic administration of type I IFN results in activation of IFN receptors present on essentially all types of nucleated cells, including neurons and hematopoietic stem cells, in addition to target cells. This may well explain the wide spectrum of IFN associated toxicities. Recent reports suggest that certain polymorphisms in type I IFN signaling molecules are associated with IFN-induced neutropenia and thrombocytopenia in patients with chronic hepatitis C. IFNγ binds to a cell-surface receptor composed of two transmembrane polypeptides IFGR1 and IFGR2 resulting in activation of the Janus kinases Jak1 and Jak2, phosphorylation of STAT1, formation of STAT1 homodimers, and activation of a specific set of genes that encode the effector molecules responsible for mediating its biological activity. In common with type I IFNs, IFNγ receptors are ubiquitous and a number of the genes activated by IFNγ are also activated by type I IFNs that may well account for a spectrum of toxicities similar to that associated with type I IFNs including “flu-like” symptoms, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and increased hepatic transaminases. Although type III IFNs share the major components of the signal transduction pathway and activate a similar set of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) as type I IFNs, distribution of the IFNλ receptor is restricted to certain cell types suggesting that IFNλ therapy may be associated with a reduced spectrum of toxicities relative to type I or type II IFNs. Repeated administration of recombinant IFNs can cause in a break in immune tolerance to self-antigens in some patients resulting in the production of neutralizing antibodies (NABs) to the recombinant protein homologue. Appearance of NABs is associated with reduced pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and a reduced clinical response. The lack of cross-neutralization of IFNβ by anti-IFNα NABs and vice versa, undoubtedly accounts for the apparent lack of toxicity associated with the presence of anti-IFN NABs with the exception of relatively mild infusion/injection reactions.
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Ouellette AL, Li JJ, Cooper DE, Ricco AJ, Kovacs GTA. Evolving Point-of-Care Diagnostics Using Up-Converting Phosphor Bioanalytical Systems. Anal Chem 2009; 81:3216-21. [DOI: 10.1021/ac900475u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Blicharz TM, Siqueira WL, Helmerhorst EJ, Oppenheim FG, Wexler PJ, Little FF, Walt DR. Fiber-optic microsphere-based antibody array for the analysis of inflammatory cytokines in saliva. Anal Chem 2009; 81:2106-14. [PMID: 19192965 PMCID: PMC2765577 DOI: 10.1021/ac802181j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Antibody microarrays have emerged as useful tools for high-throughput protein analysis and candidate biomarker screening. We describe here the development of a multiplexed microsphere-based antibody array capable of simultaneously measuring 10 inflammatory protein mediators. Cytokine-capture microspheres were fabricated by covalently coupling monoclonal antibodies specific for cytokines of interest to fluorescently encoded 3.1 microm polymer microspheres. An optical fiber bundle containing approximately 50,000 individual 3.1 microm diameter fibers was chemically etched to create microwells in which cytokine-capture microspheres could be deposited. Microspheres were randomly distributed in the wells to produce an antibody array for performing a multiplexed sandwich immunoassay. The array responded specifically to recombinant cytokine solutions in a concentration-dependent fashion. The array was also used to examine endogenous mediator patterns in saliva supernatants from patients with pulmonary inflammatory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This array technology may prove useful as a laboratory-based platform for inflammatory disease research and diagnostics, and its small footprint could also enable integration into a microfluidic cassette for use in point-of-care testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Walter L. Siqueira
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Eva J. Helmerhorst
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Frank G. Oppenheim
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Philip J. Wexler
- Pulmonary Center, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Frédéric F. Little
- Pulmonary Center, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118
| | - David R. Walt
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, 62 Talbot Ave, Medford, MA 02155
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20
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Cox AJ, Pyne DB, Gleson M, Callister R. Resting plasma and salivary IL-6 concentrations are not correlated in distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 103:477-9. [PMID: 18351377 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-008-0722-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Measurement of IL-6 has been widely undertaken to examine inflammatory and immune responses to exercise. Use of salivary IL-6 offers an alternative to the invasive collection procedures required for IL-6 measurement in plasma samples. Rarely, however, has the degree of association between plasma and salivary IL-6 been reported. The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between resting salivary and plasma IL-6 concentrations in 45 trained distance runners (36 males, 9 females; age: 35.1 +/- 8.0 y, mean +/- SD). Plasma and saliva samples were collected from athletes under resting conditions. Plasma IL-6 concentrations were determined using a Bioplex suspension array system and commercially available reagents. Salivary IL-6 concentrations were determined using a commercially available high-sensitivity ELISA kit. At rest, the mean (+/- SD) plasma IL-6 concentration was 3.43 +/- 3.75 pg mL(-1) compared to a mean salivary IL-6 concentration of 1.80 +/- 4.25 pg mL(-1). IL-6 concentrations in plasma and saliva samples were not correlated (r = -0.031, p = 0.85). At rest, salivary IL-6 concentrations do not reflect plasma IL-6 concentrations. The potential for salivary IL-6 to act as a surrogate marker for plasma IL-6 responses when examining inflammatory and immune responses to exercise, therefore, appears unlikely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J Cox
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176, Canberra, Belconnen, ACT 2616, Australia.
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21
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Correia PN, Carpenter GH, Osailan SM, Paterson KL, Proctor GB. Acute salivary gland hypofunction in the duct ligation model in the absence of inflammation. Oral Dis 2008; 14:520-8. [PMID: 18221457 PMCID: PMC2592348 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2007.01413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Objective The commonly associated aetiology of salivary gland inflammation and salivary hypofunction has led to the widely held belief that inflammation causes salivary gland hypofunction. Indeed, our own recent study seemed to support this contention. Here, we tested the hypothesis that, in an acute duct ligation model, eliminating inflammation the submandibular gland would recover normal function. Materials and methods Ligation of the rat submandibular gland excretory duct for 24 h was used to induce inflammation and salivary gland hypofunction. A group of duct ligated rats was compared with a second group given dexamethasone, on the day of duct ligation. Twenty-four hours later salivary gland function was assessed and salivary glands were collected. Results Histology and myeloperoxidase activity assay revealed a profound decrease in inflammatory cell infiltration of ligated glands from rats given dexamethasone, compared with ligated glands in the absence of dexamethasone. Salivary flow rate evoked by methacholine was decreased (P < 0.01) by approximately 56% (ligated vs control, 79 ± 9 μl min−1 g−1vs 177 ± 11 μl min−1 g−1) and salivary flow from ligated dexamethasone-treated and ligated glands was similar. Conclusion Despite eliminating the inflammatory reaction in the ligated gland, salivary hypofunction was not reversed, suggesting that other mechanisms must be at work in the ligation-induced salivary hypofunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- P N Correia
- Salivary Research Unit, King's College London Dental Institute at Guy's, King's College and St Thomas' Hospitals, London, UK.
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22
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Abstract
The use of saliva as a diagnostic fluid for various human ailments is gaining popularity as it offers distinct advantages over serum. These include the non-invasive nature of saliva collection compared with phlebotomy, simplicity of collection even for individuals with a modest training and the cost-effective applicability for screening large populations. Whole saliva is most frequently used for diagnosis of systemic diseases since it is readily collected and contains serum constituents while gland-specific saliva is useful for investigating pathology of major salivary glands. Broadly, saliva analysis is currently used for the diagnosis of infectious and malignant diseases, hereditary disorders, autoimmune diseases, and endocrine disorders, as well as for the assessment of therapeutic drug levels, particularly in monitoring drug abuse. This review addresses the current status of salivary diagnostics and their future potential.
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23
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Zhong LP, Zhang CP, Zheng JW, Li J, Chen WT, Zhang ZY. Increased Cyfra 21-1 concentration in saliva from primary oral squamous cell carcinoma patients. Arch Oral Biol 2007; 52:1079-87. [PMID: 17612501 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2007] [Revised: 05/04/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Saliva is the body fluid in the oral cavity and contacts directly with oral mucosa. As a detective media, it is acceptable and non-traumatic. Cyfra 21-1, being the soluble fragment of cytokeratin 19(CK19), correlates well with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). OBJECTIVE To investigate the saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentrations in OSCC patients and healthy persons, and the correlation between the Cyfra 21-1 concentration in saliva and the CK19 expression in tissue from OSCC patients. DESIGN Saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentration was detected by ELISA in 30 OSCC patients and 30 healthy persons; CK19 protein expression and CK19 mRNA level were, respectively, detected by immunohistochemistry and fluorescent real-time RT-PCR in cancerous and paracancerous tissues from 33 OSCC patients. RESULTS Saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentration in OSCC patients (85.95+/-78.00 microg/L) was significantly higher than that in healthy persons (42.27+/-40.84 microg/L) (P=0.009); it was also significantly higher in the patients suffering later tumour recurrence (130.95+/-66.38 microg/L) than that in the patients without tumour recurrence (74.84+/-63.45 microg/L) (P=0.023). CK19 protein expression increased significantly in OSCC tissues (P<0.001) with positive rate of 90.9%, CK19 mRNA level in cancerous tissues was 2.21 folds higher than that in paracancerous tissues (P=0.020); significant correlation was found between tissue CK19 protein expression and tissue CK19 mRNA level (P=0.003), and great correlation was found between tissue CK19 protein expression and saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentration (P=0.051). CONCLUSIONS The increased CK19 expression in OSCC tissues plays an important role in the increase of saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentration. Potential clinical value of saliva Cyfra 21-1 detection is suggested for OSCC. Further studies are encouraged to reveal the real diagnostic and prognostic value of detecting saliva Cyfra 21-1 concentration for OSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lai-ping Zhong
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Ninth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 639 Zhizaoju Rd., Shanghai 200011, China
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24
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Hu S, Li Y, Wang J, Xie Y, Tjon K, Wolinsky L, Loo R, Loo J, Wong D. Human saliva proteome and transcriptome. J Dent Res 2007; 85:1129-33. [PMID: 17122167 PMCID: PMC2175525 DOI: 10.1177/154405910608501212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper tests the hypothesis that salivary proteins and their counterpart mRNAs co-exist in human whole saliva. Global profiling of human saliva proteomes and transcriptomes by mass spectrometry (MS) and expression microarray technologies, respectively, revealed many similarities between saliva proteins and mRNAs. Of the function-known proteins identified in saliva, from 61 to 70% were also found present as mRNA transcripts. For genes not detected at both protein and mRNA levels, we made further efforts to determine if the counterpart is present. Of 19 selected genes detected only at the protein level, the mRNAs of 13 (68%) genes were found in saliva by RT-PCR. In contrast, of many mRNAs detected only by microarrays, their protein products were found in saliva, as reported previously by other investigators. The saliva transcriptome may provide preliminary insights into the boundary of the saliva proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Hu
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- UCLA Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - Y. Li
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - J. Wang
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - Y. Xie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - K. Tjon
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - L. Wolinsky
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - R.R.O. Loo
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - J.A. Loo
- UCLA Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
| | - D.T. Wong
- School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Division of Head & Neck Surgery/Otolaryngology, School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1668, USA
- *corresponding author,
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25
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Abstract
Salivary glands have proven to be unusual but valuable target sites for multiple clinical gene transfer applications. Access to salivary glands for gene transfer is easy. Multiple studies in animal models have yielded proofs of concept for novel treatments for damaged salivary glands following therapeutic irraditation, in Sjögren's syndrome, and for gene therapeutics systemically by way of the blood-stream and locally in the oral cavity and upper gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana P Cotrim
- Gene Therapy and Therapeutics Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892-1190, USA
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26
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Simčić D, Pezelj-Ribarić S, Gržić R, Horvat J, Brumini G, Muhvić-Urek M. Detection of salivary interleukin 2 and interleukin 6 in patients with burning mouth syndrome. Mediators Inflamm 2006; 2006:54632. [PMID: 16864905 PMCID: PMC1570384 DOI: 10.1155/mi/2006/54632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2005] [Accepted: 11/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The etiology of BMS remains unknown. Role of various cytokines has been implicated in the development of BMS. The aim of this study was to evaluate levels of salivary IL-2 and IL-6 in patients with BMS, compared with age-matched healthy volunteers (control group). Whole saliva from 30 patients with BMS, age range 55-65, was tested for the presence of IL-6 and IL-2 by enzyme immunoassay. Control group consisted of 30 healthy participants, aged 55-65 years. Saliva IL-2 concentrations in BMS were significantly increased in patients compared to healthy subjects: mean 34.1 +/- 9.7 versus 7.3 +/- 3.0 pg/mL; P < .001. Patients with BMS had significantly higher concentrations of IL-6 compared to control: mean 30.8 +/- 5.6 versus 5.2 +/- 2.8 pg/mL; P < .001. In patients with BMS, IL-2 and IL-6 levels in saliva are elevated, correlating with the severity of illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Simčić
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Sonja Pezelj-Ribarić
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Renata Gržić
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jelena Horvat
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Gordana Brumini
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Miranda Muhvić-Urek
- School of Dentistry, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
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27
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Minetto M, Rainoldi A, Gazzoni M, Terzolo M, Borrione P, Termine A, Saba L, Dovio A, Angeli A, Paccotti P. Differential responses of serum and salivary interleukin-6 to acute strenuous exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 93:679-86. [PMID: 15778897 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-004-1241-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Physical exercise is associated with elevation of serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) because of its production in the muscles. The use of IL-6 measurements in saliva has been proposed in the field of immunopathology, mainly involving salivary gland disease. We evaluated the responses of serum and salivary IL-6 in two different groups of athletes submitted to different types of controlled strenuous exercise (spinning activity and maximal isokinetic test). Serum and salivary samples for IL-6 measurements, and serum samples for lactate and myoglobin determination before and after exercise, were obtained. Salivary IL-6 was measured by ELISA after dilution experiments and compared with results obtained by immunoradiometric assay. Spinning activity elicited significant increases in all the variables, and no correlation was found among the respective variations. A significant response to the isokinetic exercise was observed for serum IL-6, lactate and myoglobin only; no correlation was found between serum and salivary IL-6. Our study demonstrated that serum and salivary IL-6 responses to exercise are dissociated, possibly in relation to the lack of relationships between the systemic/muscular and the salivary routes of IL-6 production. Analytical issues that concern IL-6 measurement in saliva deserve attention, notably regarding the collection method used to absorb saliva. Concomitant monitoring of serum markers of inflammation, muscle metabolism and damage can provide information about muscle function properties and adaptations to physical effort in different types of athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Minetto
- Clinica Medica Generale, Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche e Biologiche, Università di Torino, A.S.O. San Luigi, Regione Gonzole 10, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
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28
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Abstract
In the last 10 years, the use of saliva as a diagnostic fluid has become somewhat of a translational research success story. Technologies are now available enabling saliva to be used to diagnose disease and predict disease progression. This review describes some important recent advances in salivary diagnostics and barriers to application and advancement. This review will also stimulate future research activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Streckfus
- Office of Research and Graduate Programs, School of Dentistry, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson 39216-4505, USA.
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