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Pham AC, Holstein SA, Borgstahl GE. Structural Insight into Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase (GGDPS) for Cancer Therapy. Mol Cancer Ther 2024; 23:14-23. [PMID: 37756579 PMCID: PMC10762340 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-23-0358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS), the source of the isoprenoid donor in protein geranylgeranylation reactions, has become an attractive target for anticancer therapy due to the reliance of cancers on geranylgeranylated proteins. Current GGDPS inhibitor development focuses on optimizing the drug-target enzyme interactions of nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate-based drugs. To advance GGDPS inhibitor development, understanding the enzyme structure, active site, and ligand/product interactions is essential. Here we provide a comprehensive structure-focused review of GGDPS. We reviewed available yeast and human GGDPS structures and then used AlphaFold modeling to complete unsolved structural aspects of these models. We delineate the elements of higher-order structure formation, product-substrate binding, the electrostatic surface, and small-molecule inhibitor binding. With the rise of structure-based drug design, the information provided here will serve as a valuable tool for rationally optimizing inhibitor selectivity and effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C. Pham
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Sarah A. Holstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Gloria E.O. Borgstahl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
- The Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
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2
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Recent Advances in the Development of Mammalian Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase Inhibitors. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22060886. [PMID: 28555000 PMCID: PMC5902023 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22060886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The enzyme geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS) catalyzes the synthesis of the 20-carbon isoprenoid geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). GGPP is the isoprenoid donor for protein geranylgeranylation reactions catalyzed by the enzymes geranylgeranyl transferase (GGTase) I and II. Inhibitors of GGDPS result in diminution of protein geranylgeranylation through depletion of cellular GGPP levels, and there has been interest in GGDPS inhibitors as potential anti-cancer agents. Here we discuss recent advances in the development of GGDPS inhibitors, including insights gained by structure-function relationships, and review the preclinical data that support the continued development of this novel class of drugs.
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Koohang A, Bailey JL, Coates RM, Erickson HK, Owen D, Poulter CD. Enantioselective inhibition of squalene synthase by aziridine analogues of presqualene diphosphate. J Org Chem 2010; 75:4769-77. [PMID: 20545375 DOI: 10.1021/jo100718z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Squalene synthase catalyzes the conversion of two molecules of (E,E)-farnesyl diphosphate to squalene via the cyclopropylcarbinyl intermediate, presqualene diphosphate (PSPP). Since this novel reaction constitutes the first committed step in sterol biosynthesis, there has been considerable interest and research on the stereochemistry and mechanism of the process and in the design of selective inhibitors of the enzyme. This paper reports the synthesis and characterization of five racemic and two enantiopure aziridine analogues of PSPP and the evaluation of their potencies as inhibitors of recombinant yeast squalene synthase. The key aziridine-2-methanol intermediates (6-OH, 7-OH, and 8-OH) were obtained by N-alkylations or by an N-acylation-reduction sequence of (+/-)-, (2R,3S)-, and (2S,3R)-2,3-aziridinofarnesol (9-OH) protected as tert-butyldimethylsilyl ethers. S(N)2 displacements of the corresponding methanesulfonates with pyrophosphate and methanediphosphonate anions afforded aziridine 2-methyl diphosphates and methanediphosphonates bearing N-undecyl, N-bishomogeranyl, and N-(alpha-methylene)bishomogeranyl substituents as mimics for the 2,6,10-trimethylundeca-2,5,9-trienyl side chain of PSPP. The 2R,3S diphosphate enantiomer bearing the N-bishomogeranyl substituent corresponding in absolute stereochemistry to PSPP proved to be the most potent inhibitor (IC(50) 1.17 +/- 0.08 muM in the presence of inorganic pyrophosphate), a value 4-fold less than that of its 2S,3R stereoisomer. The other aziridine analogues bearing the N-(alpha-methylene)bishomogeranyl and N-undecyl substituents, and the related methanediphosphonates, exhibited lower affinities for recombinant squalene synthase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Koohang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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Sasaki D, Fujihashi M, Okuyama N, Kobayashi Y, Noike M, Koyama T, Miki K. Crystal structure of heterodimeric hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase from Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 reveals that the small subunit is directly involved in the product chain length regulation. J Biol Chem 2010; 286:3729-40. [PMID: 21068379 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.147991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase from Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 (Ml-HexPPs) is a heterooligomeric type trans-prenyltransferase catalyzing consecutive head-to-tail condensations of three molecules of isopentenyl diphosphates (C(5)) on a farnesyl diphosphate (FPP; C(15)) to form an (all-E) hexaprenyl diphosphate (HexPP; C(30)). Ml-HexPPs is known to function as a heterodimer of two different subunits, small and large subunits called HexA and HexB, respectively. Compared with homooligomeric trans-prenyltransferases, the molecular mechanism of heterooligomeric trans-prenyltransferases is not yet clearly understood, particularly with respect to the role of the small subunits lacking the catalytic motifs conserved in most known trans-prenyltransferases. We have determined the crystal structure of Ml-HexPPs both in the substrate-free form and in complex with 7,11-dimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrien-1-yl diphosphate ammonium salt (3-DesMe-FPP), an analog of FPP. The structure of HexB is composed of mostly antiparallel α-helices joined by connecting loops. Two aspartate-rich motifs (designated the first and second aspartate-rich motifs) and the other characteristic motifs in HexB are located around the diphosphate part of 3-DesMe-FPP. Despite the very low amino acid sequence identity and the distinct polypeptide chain lengths between HexA and HexB, the structure of HexA is quite similar to that of HexB. The aliphatic tail of 3-DesMe-FPP is accommodated in a large hydrophobic cleft starting from HexB and penetrating to the inside of HexA. These structural features suggest that HexB catalyzes the condensation reactions and that HexA is directly involved in the product chain length control in cooperation with HexB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Sasaki
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Golczak M, Maeda A, Bereta G, Maeda T, Kiser PD, Hunzelmann S, von Lintig J, Blaner WS, Palczewski K. Metabolic basis of visual cycle inhibition by retinoid and nonretinoid compounds in the vertebrate retina. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:9543-54. [PMID: 18195010 PMCID: PMC2441898 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m708982200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In vertebrate retinal photoreceptors, the absorption of light by rhodopsin leads to photoisomerization of 11-cis-retinal to its all-trans isomer. To sustain vision, a metabolic system evolved that recycles all-trans-retinal back to 11-cis-retinal. The importance of this visual (retinoid) cycle is underscored by the fact that mutations in genes encoding visual cycle components induce a wide spectrum of diseases characterized by abnormal levels of specific retinoid cycle intermediates. In addition, intense illumination can produce retinoid cycle by-products that are toxic to the retina. Thus, inhibition of the retinoid cycle has therapeutic potential in physiological and pathological states. Four classes of inhibitors that include retinoid and nonretinoid compounds have been identified. We investigated the modes of action of these inhibitors by using purified visual cycle components and in vivo systems. We report that retinylamine was the most potent and specific inhibitor of the retinoid cycle among the tested compounds and that it targets the retinoid isomerase, RPE65. Hydrophobic primary amines like farnesylamine also showed inhibitory potency but a short duration of action, probably due to rapid metabolism. These compounds also are reactive nucleophiles with potentially high cellular toxicity. We also evaluated the role of a specific protein-mediated mechanism on retinoid cycle inhibitor uptake by the eye. Our results show that retinylamine is transported to and taken up by the eye by retinol-binding protein-independent and retinoic acid-responsive gene product 6-independent mechanisms. Finally, we provide evidence for a crucial role of lecithin: retinol acyltransferase activity in mediating tissue specific absorption and long lasting therapeutic effects of retinoid-based visual cycle inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Golczak
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Abstract
Isoprenoids represent the oldest class of known low molecular-mass natural products synthesized by plants. Their biogenesis in plastids, mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum-cytosol proceed invariably from the C5 building blocks, isopentenyl diphosphate and/or dimethylallyl diphosphate according to complex and reiterated mechanisms. Compounds derived from the pathway exhibit a diverse spectrum of biological functions. This review centers on advances obtained in the field based on combined use of biochemical, molecular biology and genetic approaches. The function and evolutionary implications of this metabolism are discussed in relation with seminal informations gathered from distantly but related organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Bouvier
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes du CNRS (UPR2357) et Université Louis Pasteur, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France
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Hartman HL, Bowers KE, Fierke CA. Lysine beta311 of protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I partially replaces magnesium. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:30546-53. [PMID: 15131129 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m403469200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I (GGTase I) catalyzes the attachment of a geranylgeranyl lipid group near the carboxyl terminus of protein substrates. Unlike protein farnesyltransferase (FTase) and protein geranylgeranyltransferase type II, which require both Zn(II) and Mg(II) for maximal turnover, GGTase I turnover is dependent only on Zn(II). In FTase, the magnesium ion is coordinated by aspartate beta352 and the diphosphate of farnesyl diphosphate to stabilize the developing charge in the transition state (Pickett, J. S., Bowers, K. E., and Fierke, C. A. (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 51243-51250). In GGTase I, lysine beta311 is substituted for this aspartate and is proposed to replace the catalytic function of Mg(II) (Taylor, J. S., Reid, T. S., Terry, K. L., Casey, P. J., and Beese, L. S. (2003) EMBO J. 22, 5963-5974). Here we demonstrate that the prenylation rate constant catalyzed by wild type GGTase I (k(chem) = 0.18 +/- 0.02 s(-1)) is not dependent on Mg(II), is approximately 20-fold slower than the maximal rate constant catalyzed by FTase, and has a single pKa of 6.4 +/- 0.1, likely reflecting deprotonation of the peptide thiol. Mutation of lysine beta311 in GGTase I to alanine (Kbeta311A) or aspartate (Kbeta311D) decreases the k(chem) in the absence of magnesium 9-41-fold without significantly affecting the binding affinity of either substrate. Furthermore, the geranylgeranylation rate constant is enhanced by the addition of Mg(II) for Kbeta311A and Kbeta311D GGTase I 2-5-fold compared with wild type GGTase I with K(Mg) of 140 +/- 10 mm and 6.4 +/- 0.8 mm, respectively. These results demonstrate that lysine beta311 of GGTase I partially replaces the catalytic function of Mg(II) observed in FTase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L Hartman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, USA
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Liang PH, Ko TP, Wang AHJ. Structure, mechanism and function of prenyltransferases. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2002; 269:3339-54. [PMID: 12135472 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1033.2002.03014.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we summarize recent progress in studying three main classes of prenyltransferases: (a) isoprenyl pyrophosphate synthases (IPPSs), which catalyze chain elongation of allylic pyrophosphate substrates via consecutive condensation reactions with isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) to generate linear polymers with defined chain lengths; (b) protein prenyltransferases, which catalyze the transfer of an isoprenyl pyrophosphate (e.g. farnesyl pyrophosphate) to a protein or a peptide; (c) prenyltransferases, which catalyze the cyclization of isoprenyl pyrophosphates. The prenyltransferase products are widely distributed in nature and serve a variety of important biological functions. The catalytic mechanism deduced from the 3D structure and other biochemical studies of these prenyltransferases as well as how the protein functions are related to their reaction mechanism and structure are discussed. In the IPPS reaction, we focus on the mechanism that controls product chain length and the reaction kinetics of IPP condensation in the cis-type and trans-type enzymes. For protein prenyltransferases, the structures of Ras farnesyltransferase and Rab geranylgeranyltransferase are used to elucidate the reaction mechanism of this group of enzymes. For the enzymes involved in cyclic terpene biosynthesis, the structures and mechanisms of squalene cyclase, 5-epi-aristolochene synthase, pentalenene synthase, and trichodiene synthase are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Huang Liang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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9
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Szabo CM, Matsumura Y, Fukura S, Martin MB, Sanders JM, Sengupta S, Cieslak JA, Loftus TC, Lea CR, Lee HJ, Koohang A, Coates RM, Sagami H, Oldfield E. Inhibition of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase by bisphosphonates and diphosphates: a potential route to new bone antiresorption and antiparasitic agents. J Med Chem 2002; 45:2185-96. [PMID: 12014956 DOI: 10.1021/jm010412y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report the inhibition of a human recombinant geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPSase) by 23 bisphosphonates and six azaprenyl diphosphates. The IC50 values range from 140 nM to 690 microM. None of the nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates that inhibit farnesyl diphosphate synthase were effective in inhibiting the GGPPSase enzyme. Using three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship/comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) methods, we find a good correlation between experimental and predicted activity: R2 = 0.938, R(cv)2 = 0.900, R(bs)2 = 0.938, and F-test = 86.8. To test the predictive utility of the CoMFA approach, we used three training sets of 25 compounds each to generate models to predict three test sets of three compounds. The rms pIC50 error for the nine predictions was 0.39. We also investigated the pharmacophore of these GGPPSase inhibitors using the Catalyst method. The results demonstrated that Catalyst predicted the pIC50 values for the nine test set compounds with an rms error of 0.28 (R2 between experimental and predicted activity of 0.948).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Szabo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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10
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cDNA cloning, chromosome mapping and expression characterization of human geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000; 43:613-22. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02882282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2000] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Bergstrom JD, Bostedor RG, Masarachia PJ, Reszka AA, Rodan G. Alendronate is a specific, nanomolar inhibitor of farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 373:231-41. [PMID: 10620343 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Alendronate, a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate, is a potent inhibitor of bone resorption used for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis. Recent findings suggest that alendronate and other N-containing bisphosphonates inhibit the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway and interfere with protein prenylation, as a result of reduced geranylgeranyl diphosphate levels. This study identified farnesyl disphosphate synthase as the mevalonate pathway enzyme inhibited by bisphosphonates. HPLC analysis of products from a liver cytosolic extract narrowed the potential targets for alendronate inhibition (IC(50) = 1700 nM) to isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase and farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Recombinant human farnesyl diphosphate synthase was inhibited by alendronate with an IC(50) of 460 nM (following 15 min preincubation). Alendronate did not inhibit isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase or GGPP synthase, partially purified from liver cytosol. Recombinant farnesyl diphosphate synthase was also inhibited by pamidronate (IC(50) = 500 nM) and risedronate (IC(50) = 3.9 nM), negligibly by etidronate (IC50 = 80 microM), and not at all by clodronate. In osteoclasts, alendronate inhibited the incorporation of [(3)H]mevalonolactone into proteins of 18-25 kDa and into nonsaponifiable lipids, including sterols. These findings (i) identify farnesyl diphosphate synthase as the selective target of alendronate in the mevalonate pathway, (ii) show that this enzyme is inhibited by other N-containing bisphosphonates, such as risendronate, but not by clodronate, supporting a different mechanism of action for different bisphosphonates, and (iii) document in purified osteoclasts alendronate inhibition of prenylation and sterol biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Bergstrom
- Infectious Disease, Merck Research Laboratories (R80-A14), Rahway, New Jersey, 07065, USA.
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Martin MB, Arnold W, Heath HT, Urbina JA, Oldfield E. Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates as carbocation transition state analogs for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 263:754-8. [PMID: 10512752 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates are potent bone antiresorptive agents as well as having herbicidal and antiparasitic activity, and are thought to act by inhibiting enzymes of the mevalonate pathway. Using molecular modeling and ab initio quantum chemical calculations, we show that bisphosphonates can act as aza-isoprenoid transition state analogs, thereby inhibiting isoprenoid biosynthesis. The two phosphonate groups of the 1,1-bisphosphonates readily dock into the diphosphate-Mg(2+) binding site in farnesyl diphosphate synthase, while the charged ammonium (or pyridinium or imidazolium) groups act as carbocation transition state analogs, whose binding is stabilized by a cluster of oxygen atoms in the active site cleft, and an overall negative electrostatic potential in this region. Enhanced activity is shown to correlate with increasing van der Waals stabilization due to N-alkylation, or the presence of a charged, planar (sp(2)-hybridized) aromatic residue in the carbocation binding site. These results are of general interest since they suggest a rational approach to bisphosphonate drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Martin
- Departments of Chemistry and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathew's Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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Kuzuguchi T, Morita Y, Sagami I, Sagami H, Ogura K. Human geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase. cDNA cloning and expression. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:5888-94. [PMID: 10026212 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.9.5888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) synthase (GGPPSase) catalyzes the synthesis of GGPP, which is an important molecule responsible for the C20-prenylated protein biosynthesis and for the regulation of a nuclear hormone receptor (LXR.RXR). The human GGPPSase cDNA encodes a protein of 300 amino acids which shows 16% sequence identity with the known human farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) synthase (FPPSase). The GGPPSase expressed in Escherichia coli catalyzes the GGPP formation (240 nmol/min/mg) from FPP and isopentenyl diphosphate. The human GGPPSase behaves as an oligomeric molecule with 280 kDa on a gel filtration column and cross-reacts with an antibody directed against bovine brain GGPPSase, which differs immunochemically from bovine brain FPPSase. Northern blot analysis indicates the presence of two forms of the mRNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kuzuguchi
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Science, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan
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Goto S, Shimokawa T. Effect of the hypocholesterolemic agent YM-16638 on cholesterol biosynthesis activity and apolipoprotein B secretion in HepG2 and monkey liver. JAPANESE JOURNAL OF PHARMACOLOGY 1999; 79:75-82. [PMID: 10082320 DOI: 10.1254/jjp.79.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
YM-16638 ([[5-[[3-(4-acetyl-3-hydroxy-2-propylphenoxy)propyl]thio]-1,3,4-++ +thiadiazol-2-yl] thio] acetic acid) showed a strong hypocholesterolemic effect in humans and monkeys. To clarify the mechanism of this hypocholesterolemic effect, the action of YM-16638 on cholesterol biosynthesis in the cultured human hepatoma cell line HepG2 and cynomolgus monkey liver was examined. Cholesterol biosynthesis activity derived from [14C]acetic acid, [3H/14C]mevalonic acid or [14C]isopentenyl pyrophosphate substrates was significantly decreased, but not that from [3H]farnesyl pyrophosphate or [3H]squalene substrates in HepG2 cells treated with YM-16638. Simultaneously, treatment of these cells with YM-16638 changed neither the rate of apolipoprotein B synthesis from [35S]methionine nor its secretion. In addition, the activities of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis enzymes HMG-CoA reductase, mevalonate kinase (MK), isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase (IPPI), farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS), squalene synthase and squalene epoxidase were measured in monkeys fed a diet supplemented with YM-16638. Among these enzymes, MK, IPPI and FPPS activities in the YM-16638-treated group significantly decreased by 38%, 56% and 30%, respectively, when compared to those from control animals receiving no drug treatment. These results indicate that YM-16638 has the characteristics of a cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Goto
- Cardiovascular & Atherosclerosis Research Laboratories, Institute for Drug Discovery Research, Yamanouchi Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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15
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Lai C, McMahon R, Young C, Mackay TF, Langley CH. quemao, a Drosophila bristle locus, encodes geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase. Genetics 1998; 149:1051-61. [PMID: 9611212 PMCID: PMC1460199 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/149.2.1051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The quemao (qm) locus of Drosophila melanogaster is characterized by a P-element-associated mutant lacking most of the large bristles on the thorax and by several EMS-induced recessive lethals. quemao was cloned using a transposon tagging strategy. P-element-mediated transformation demonstrated that the cloned qm DNA sequence (from the 65F cytological region) rescues the mutant phenotype. A 2.3-kb qm transcript was identified by Northern blot analysis by sequencing of the isolated qm cDNA clones and by 5' rapid amplification cDNA end (RACE). The predicted amino acid sequence (338 residues) of the coding region of the qm transcript shares 42, 31, 13, 20, and 12% identical amino acid sequences with the geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase (GGPPS) of fungi, yeast, plants, archaebacteria, and eubacteria, respectively. It also contains five highly conserved domains common among all known isoprenyl pyrophosphate synthases. The P element associated with the original qm mutant is inserted in the 5' untranslated region of the transcript. An EMS-induced qm nonsense mutation at the 12th codon leads to recessive lethality at the first larval instar, indicating the essential role of qm in the isoprenoid biosynthesis of insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lai
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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16
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Abstract
It is noteworthy that in spite of the similarity of the reactions catalyzed by these prenyltransferases, the modes of expression of catalytic function are surprisingly different, varying according to the chain length and stereochemistry of reaction products. These enzymes are summarized and classified into four groups, as shown in Figure 13. Short-chain prenyl diphosphates synthases such as FPP and GGPP synthases require no cofactor except divalent metal ions, Mg2+ or Mn2+, which are commonly required by all prenyl diphosphate synthases. Medium-chain prenyl diphosphate synthases, including the enzymes for the synthesis of all-E-HexPP and all-E-HepPP, are unusual because they each consist of two dissociable dissimilar protein components, neither of which has catalytic activity. The enzymes for the synthesis of long-chain all-E-prenyl diphosphates, including octaprenyl (C40), nonaprenyl-(C45), and decaprenyl (C50) diphosphates, require polyprenyl carrier proteins that remove polyprenyl products from the active sites of the enzymes to maintain efficient turnovers of catalysis. The enzymes responsible for Z-chain elongation include Z,E-nonaprenyl-(C45) and Z,E-undecaprenyl (C55) diphosphate synthases, which require a phospholipid. The classification of mammalian synthases seems to be fundamentally similar to that of bacterial synthases except that no medium-chain prenyl diphosphate synthases are included. The Z-prenyl diphosphate synthase in mammalian cells is dehydrodolichyl PP synthase, which catalyzes much longer chain elongations than do bacterial enzymes. Dehydrodolichyl PP synthase will be a major target of future studies in this field in view of its involvement in glycoprotein biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ogura
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Dewick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nottingham, UK
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Jiang Y, Proteau P, Poulter D, Ferro-Novick S. BTS1 encodes a geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:21793-9. [PMID: 7665600 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.37.21793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein prenylation utilizes different types of isoprenoids groups, namely farnesyl and geranylgeranyl, to modify proteins. These lipophilic moieties attach to carboxyl-terminal cysteine residues to promote the association of soluble proteins to membranes. Most prenylated proteins are geranylgeranylated. Geranylgeranylation is catalyzed by two different prenyltransferases, the type I and type II geranylgeranyl transferases, both of which utilize geranylgeranyl diphosphate as a lipid donor. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the BET2 gene encodes the beta-subunit of the type II geranylgeranyl transferase. Mutations in this gene cause a defect in the geranylgeranylation of small GTP-binding proteins that mediate vesicular traffic. In an attempt to analyze those genes whose products may interact with Bet2, we isolated a suppressor of the bet2-1 mutant. This suppressor gene, called BTS1, encodes the yeast geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase. BTS1 is not essential for the vegetative growth of cells; however, disrupting it impedes the geranylgeranylation of many cellular proteins and renders cells cold sensitive for growth. Our findings imply that BTS1 suppresses the bet2-1 mutant by increasing the intracellular pool of geranylgeranyl diphosphate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
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Zhang F, Moomaw J, Casey P. Properties and kinetic mechanism of recombinant mammalian protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)31539-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Sagami H, Morita Y, Ogura K. Purification and properties of geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase from bovine brain. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)32030-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Affiliation(s)
- G Sandmann
- Botanisches Institut, FB Biologie, J.W. Goethe Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
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