Lead affects steroidogenesis in rat Leydig cells in vivo and in vitro

Ginkgo biloba supplement abates lead-induced endothelial and testicular dysfunction in Wistar rats via up-regulation of Bcl-2 protein expression, pituitary-testicular hormones and down-regulation of oxido-inflammatory reactions

BACKGROUND

Apoptotic and oxido-inflammatory pathways have been found to be up-regulated in lead acetate poisoning which has been associated to endothelial and testicular dysfunctions. It is yet uncertain, nevertheless, if treatment with Ginkgo biloba supplements (GBS), a flavonoid-rich natural product can lessen the adverse effects of lead on endothelial and testicular functions. This study investigated the impact of Ginkgo biloba supplementation on lead-induced endothelial and testicular dysfunctions.

METHODS

The animals were treated with GBS (50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg orally) for 14 days following oral exposure to lead acetate (25 mg/kg) for 14 days. After euthanasia, blood samples, epididymal sperm, testes, and aorta were collected. The quantities of the hormones (testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), as well as the anti-apoptotic, oxidative, nitrergic, inflammatory markers, were then determined using immunohistochemistry, ELISA, and conventional biochemical methods.

RESULTS

GBS reduced lead-induced oxidative stress by increasing the levels of the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), while lowering malondialdehyde (MDA) in endothelium and testicular cells. Normal testicular weight was restored by GBS which also decreased endothelial endothelin-I and increased nitrite levels. TNF-α and IL-6 were decreased while Bcl-2 protein expression was enhanced. Lead-induced alterations in reproductive hormones (FSH, LH, and testosterone) were also restored to normal.

CONCLUSION

According to our result, using Ginkgo biloba supplement prevented lead from causing endothelial and testicular dysfunction by raising pituitary-testicular hormone levels, boosting Bcl-2 protein expression and lowering oxidative and inflammatory stress in the endothelium and testes.

Glycine protects the male reproductive system against lead toxicity via alleviating oxidative stress, preventing sperm mitochondrial impairment, improving kinematics of sperm, and blunting the downregulation of enzymes involved in the steroidogenesis

Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic heavy metal widely dispersed in the environment because of human industrial activities. Many studies revealed that Pb could adversely affect several organs, including the male reproductive system. Pb-induced reproductive toxicity could lead to infertility. Thus, finding safe and clinically applicable protective agents against this complication is important. It has been found that oxidative stress plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of Pb-induced reprotoxicity. Glycine is the simplest amino acid with a wide range of pharmacological activities. It has been found that glycine could attenuate oxidative stress and mitochondrial impairment in various experimental models. The current study was designed to evaluate the role of glycine in Pb-induced reproductive toxicity in male mice. Male BALB/c mice received Pb (20 mg/kg/day; gavage; 35 consecutive days) and treated with glycine (250 and 500 mg/kg/day; gavage; 35 consecutive days). Then, reproductive system weight indices, biomarkers of oxidative stress in the testis and isolated sperm, sperm kinetic, sperm mitochondrial indices, and testis histopathological alterations were monitored. A significant change in testis, epididymis, and Vas deferens weight was evident in Pb-treated animals. Markers of oxidative stress were also significantly increased in the testis and isolated sperm of the Pb-treated group. A significant disruption in sperm kinetic was also evident when mice received Pb. Moreover, Pb exposure caused significant deterioration in sperm mitochondrial indices. Tubular injury, tubular desquamation, and decreased spermatogenic index were histopathological alterations detected in Pb-treated mice. It was found that glycine significantly blunted oxidative stress markers in testis and sperm, improved sperm mitochondrial parameters, causing considerable higher velocity-related indices (VSL, VCL, and VAP) and percentages of progressively motile sperm, and decreased testis histopathological changes in Pb-exposed animals. These data suggest glycine as a potential protective agent against Pb-induced reproductive toxicity. The effects of glycine on oxidative stress markers and mitochondrial function play a key role in its protective mechanism.

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) mitigates lead (II) acetate-induced testicular dysfunction in Wistar rats via up-regulation of Bcl-2 protein expression, pituitary-testicular hormonal axis and down-regulation of oxido-inflammatory reactions

Oxido-inflammatory stress has been involved in lead-induced testicular dysfunction and plants rich in anti-oxidants has been reported to be beneficial in combating heavy metal poisonings in animal studies. However, cabbage juice protective effect on lead-induced testicular dysfunction was investigated in this study. Twenty male Wistar rats were selected into four (n = 5) groups and given distilled water (1 ml/100 g body weight), lead acetate (25 mg/kg body weight), cabbage juice (1 ml/100 g body weight), and lead acetate with cabbage juice, respectively. All treatments were administered orally for 28 days. Sperm count, motility, viability, testosterone, luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, testicular Bcl-2 expression, and enzymatic anti-oxidant capabilities were considerably (p < 0.05) decrease in lead-treated animals. However, cabbage juice significantly (p < 0.05) elevated these parameters. Testicular malondialdehyde, tumour necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide and interleukin-6 was elevated by lead acetate. When comparing cabbage juice-treated animals to lead-treated animals, all of these parameters were considerably (p < 0.05) downregulated in cabbage juice-treated animals. Following lead administration, the testes' histomorphological alterations were not totally recovered despite therapy with cabbage juice. Conclusively, this study suggest that cabbage juice mitigates testicular dysfunction associated with lead exposure via its anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and androgenic properties.

Improvement roles of zinc supplementation in low dose lead induced testicular damage and glycolytic inhibition in mice

Lead (Pb) is a toxic metal that affects the male reproductive system. This study aimed to investigate the effects of zinc (Zn) intake between recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) and tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) in preventing male testis damage induced by low-dose Pb. Forty-five mice were randomly divided into control, Pb, and Pb + Zn groups. They were given distilled water ad libitum with 0, 200 mg/L Pb²⁺, or 15 mg/L Zn²⁺ mixed with 200 mg/L Pb²⁺ for 90 consecutive days. The Zn levels in the blood and testis of the Pb group were significantly lower than those of the control group. The Pb levels in the blood and testis of the Pb + Zn group were significantly lower than those of the Pb group. Additionally, a significant decrease in sperm density and viability, with a significant increase in sperm abnormality rate and DNA fragmentation index, was observed in the Pb group. Zn supplementation significantly improved the above sperm parameters. Moreover, Zn supplementation decreased low-dose Pb-induced lipid peroxidation and increased glutathione, total superoxide dismutase (SOD), and copper/Zn-SOD levels. Furthermore, Zn treatment improved glycolysis products and lactate transporters in Pb-treated mouse testes. Our findings suggest that Zn intake between RDAs and UL can act as a therapeutic agent in protecting against the reproductive impairments associated with Pb exposure.

An approach to classifying occupational exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals by sex hormone function using an expert judgment process

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with the endocrine system and cause adverse effects. We aimed to classify the effects of 24 known EDCs, prevalent in certain occupations, according to four modes of action (estrogenic, antiestrogenic, androgenic, and/or antiandrogenic). A literature search, stratified into four types of literature was conducted (namely: national and international agency reports; review articles; primary studies; ToxCast^TM). The state of the evidence of each EDC on sex hormone function was summarized and reviewed by an expert panel. For each mode of action, the experts evaluated the likelihood of endocrine disruption in five categories: "No", "Unlikely", "Possibly", "Probably", and "Yes". Seven agents were categorized as "Yes," or having strong evidence for their effects on sex hormone function (antiandrogenic: lead, arsenic, butylbenzyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, dicyclohexyl phthalate; estrogenic: nonylphenol, bisphenol A). Nine agents were categorized as "Probable," or having probable evidence (antiandrogenic: bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, nonylphenol, toluene, bisphenol A, diisononyl phthalate; androgenic: cadmium; estrogenic: copper, cadmium and; anti-estrogenic: lead). Two agents (arsenic, polychlorinated biphenyls) had opposing conclusions supporting both "probably" estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects. This synthesis will allow researchers to evaluate the health effects of selected EDCs with an added level of precision related to the mode of action.

A potential mechanism associated with lead-induced spermatogonia and Leydig cell toxicity and mitigative effect of selenium in chicken

Lead (Pb) is a toxic heavy metal pollutants and can damage male reproductive function. Selenium (Se) possesses an ability of antagonizing Pb toxicity. However, biological events in the process of Pb toxicity and mitigative effect of Se are not well understood. The aim of present research was to investigate potential mechanism of Se against Pb toxicity from the perspective of oxidative stress, heat shock response and autophagy in the spermatogonia and Leydig cell of chicken. The cells from one-day-old male Hyline chickens were treated with Se (0.5 μmol/L) and/or Pb (20 μmol/L) for 24 h, respectively. Cell viability, cell ultrastucture, Pb and Se concentrations, testosterone level, oxidative stress indicators and relative expression of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and autophagy-related genes were measured. The results showed that spermatogonia was more tolerant to Pb than Leydig cell; cell injury was confirmed via histological assessment, cell viability and testosterone level; oxidative stress was further indicated by the decrease of catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-s-transferase and superoxide dismutase activities and the increase of malondialdehyde and reactive oxygen species contents. Pb increased expression of HSPs (27, 40, 60, 70 and 90). Meanwhile Pb induced autophagy through up-regulation of autophagy-related proteins 5, Beclin 1, Dynein, light chain 3 (LC3)-I and LC3-II and down-regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin in two type cells of chicken. However, Se intervention mitigated the aforementioned alterations caused by Pb. In conclusion, Pb led to oxidative stress, which triggered heat shock response and autophagy; Se administration mitigated reproductive toxicity of Pb through strengthening antioxidant defense in the spermatogonia and Leydig cell of chicken.

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects of hydro-ethanolic extract of Cyperus esculentus L. (tigernut) on lead acetate-induced testicular dysfunction in Wistar rats

AIM

Lead acetate impairs testicular function by enhancing testicular oxidative stress and apoptosis. Cyperus esculentus possesses antioxidants and has shown great improvement of testicular function. This study investigated the protective effect of hydro-ethanolic extract of Cyperus esculentus on lead acetate-induced testicular dysfunction in Wistar rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-five male Wistar rats (180-195 g) were randomly divided into 5 groups (n = 5) namely: Normal control (NC), Lead control (PbC) (20 mg/kg b.w. i.p.), C. esculentus-treated (CE) (500 mg/kg b.w p.o.), Pb + CE(500) (20 mg/kg of lead and 500 mg/kg of extract) and Pb + CE(1000) (20 mg/kg of lead and 1000 mg/kg of extract). Administration lasted for 21 days.

RESULTS

Sperm count, motility, viability, serum testosterone and follicle stimulating hormone, Johnsen's score, Leydig cell count, Sertoli cell count, testicular testosterone, B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, cytochrome P450 A1, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD), 17β-HSD, enzymatic antioxidant activities and total antioxidant capacity were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in PbC compared with NC. These parameters however increased significantly (p < 0.05) in Pb + CE(500) and Pb + CE(1000) compared with PbC. Lead acetate upregulated (p < 0.05) testicular malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, glucose, lactate, lactate dehydrogenase, C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, Bcl-2 associated X (Bax), Bax/Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase-3 levels. All these parameters were downregulated (p < 0.05) in Pb + CE(500) and Pb + CE(1000) in comparison with PbC.

CONCLUSION

C. esculentus exhibited a dose-dependent mitigation of lead acetate-induced testicular dysfunction in Wistar rats via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects.

Blood metal levels and serum testosterone concentrations in male and female children and adolescents: NHANES 2011-2012

Environmental exposure to metals is ubiquitous, but its relation to androgen hormone levels is not well understood, especially in children and adolescents. This study aimed to explore the relationship between blood metal concentrations (lead, cadmium, total mercury, selenium, and manganese) and serum total testosterone (TT) levels in 6–19-year-old children and adolescents in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011–2012. Weighted multivariable linear regression models using NHANES sampling weights were employed to evaluate the association between log-transformed serum TT and each metal categories in male and female children (age 6-11years) and adolescents (age 12–19 years). We established that blood cadmium and manganese levels were associated with significantly higher serum TT levels in the female adolescents. Additionally, the blood selenium levels in male adolescents were related to significantly higher serum TT. No significant associations between blood lead or total mercury levels and TT were observed in children or adolescents of either sex. These findings suggest that environmental exposure to certain metals could affect serum TT levels in adolescents, which might have important implications for the health of adolescents. Further research is required to confirm and extend our present findings.

Melatonin prevents and ameliorates lead-induced gonadotoxicity through antioxidative and hormonal mechanisms

We investigated the effects of melatonin on sperm parameters and some biochemical markers in lead-exposed male Wistar rats. Lead (50 mg/kg bw/day) and/or melatonin (4 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg bw/day) was administered for 4 weeks, while 2-week lead exposure was preceded by or followed by 2-week treatment with both doses of melatonin in other groups. Lead reduced glutathione, catalase, adjusted testes weight, semen parameters but did not change malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase, and total antioxidant capacity. Though independent of prolactin, lead-induced gonadotoxicity was both centrally and peripherally mediated, as it reduced gonadotropin-releasing hormone and testosterone levels, while gonadotropin levels did not change significantly probably due to negative feedback by elevated estradiol. However, pre-, simultaneous, or posttreatment of lead-exposed rats with melatonin reduced MDA, SOD, and estradiol but dose-dependently increased other parameters. Conclusively, lead causes male gonadotoxicity through oxidative stress and endocrine mechanisms, and these could be dose-dependently prevented and ameliorated by melatonin.

Parallel effect of 4-octylphenol and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) alters steroidogenesis, cell viability and ROS production in mice Leydig cells

Over the last decade, there is growing incidence of male reproductive malfunctions. It has been documented that numerous environmental contaminants, such as endocrine disruptors (EDs) may adversely affect the reproductive functions of humans as well as wildlife species. The aim of this in vitro study was to examine the effects of 4-octylphenol (4-OP) on the steroidogenesis in mice Leydig cells. We evaluated the impact of this endocrine disruptor on the cholesterol levels and hormone secretion in a primary culture. Subsequently, we determined the cell viability and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following 4-OP treatment. Isolated mice Leydig cells were cultured in the presence of different 4-OP concentrations (0.04-5.0 μg/mL) and 1 mM cyclic adenosine-monophosphate during 44 h. Cholesterol levels were determined from the culture medium using photometry. Quantification of steroid secretion was performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The cell viability was assessed using the metabolic activity assay, while ROS production was assessed by the chemiluminescence technique. Slightly increased cholesterol levels were recorded following exposure to the whole applied range of 4-OP, without significant changes (P>0.05). In contrast, the secretion of steroid hormones, specifically dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenedione, and testosterone was decreased following exposure to 4-OP. Experimental doses of 4-OP did not affect cell viability significantly; however a moderate decrease was recorded following the higher doses (2.5 and 5.0 μg/mL) of 4-OP. Furthermore, relative treatment of 4-OP (5.0 μg/mL) caused a significant (P < 0.001) ROS overproduction in the exposed cells.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside promotes the biosynthesis of progesterone through the protection of mitochondrial function in Pb-exposed rat leydig cells

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is an anthocyanin that has been reported to reduce the toxicity of heavy metals. In the present study, the protection effects of C3G on the biosynthesis of progesterone, the precursor of testosterone, against lead (Pb) in R2C rat Leydig cells were examined. Treatment of R2C cells with 100 μM Pb resulted in a significant decrease in progesterone production. After being cultured in a medium containing C3G and Pb, R2C cells exhibited an increase in progesterone concentration compared with the Pb treatment, as a result of up-regulation of the expression of the steroidogenic enzymes steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) and cytochrome P450 enzyme cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1). Pb-induced inhibition of extracellular regulated Kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2) phosphorylation and down-regulation of protein kinase A (PKA) expression were alleviated by C3G. In addition, Pb-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction led to mitochondrial depolarization, resulting in a decrease in progesterone biosynthesis, while C3G intervention reduced the ROS level and increased progesterone production. In conclusion, C3G may alleviate the Pb-induced decrease of progesterone biosynthesis by modulating the dysfunction of mitochondria, including decreasing oxidative stress and regulating expression of steroidogenic enzyme proteins.

In vitro effect of 4-nonylphenol on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulated hormone secretion, cell viability and reactive oxygen species generation in mice Leydig cells

Nonylphenol is considered an endocrine disruptor and has been reported to affect male reproductive functions. In our in vitro study, we evaluated the effects of 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) on cholesterol levels, hormone formation and viability in cultured Leydig cells from adult ICR male mice. We also determined the potential impact of 4-NP on generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after 44 h of cultivation. The cells were cultured with addition of 0.04; 0.2; 1.0; 2.5 and 5.0 μg/mL of 4-NP in the present of 1 IU/mL human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and compared to the control. The quantity of cholesterol was determined from culture medium using photometry. Determination of hormone production was performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Metabolic activity assay was used for quantification of cell viability. The chemiluminescence technique, which uses a luminometer to measure reactive oxygen species, was employed. Applied doses of 4-NP (0.04-5.0 μg/mL) slight increase cholesterol levels and decrease production of dehydroepiandrosterone after 44 h of cultivation, but not significantly. Incubation of 4-NP treated cells with hCG significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited androstenedione, but not testosterone, formation at the highest concentration (5.0 μg/mL). The viability was significantly (P < 0.05); (P < 0.001) increased at 1.0; 2.5 and 5.0 μg/mL of 4-NP after 44 h treatment. Furthermore, 44 h treatment of 4-NP (0.04-5.0 μg/mL) caused significant (P < 0.001) intracellular accumulation of ROS in exposed cells. Taken together, the results of our in vitro study reported herein is consistent with the conclusion that 4-nonylphenol is able to influence hormonal profile, cell viability and generate ROS.

The Impact of 4-Nonylphenol on the Viability and Hormone Production of Mouse Leydig Cells

Exogenous substances altering the function of the endocrine system and exhibiting adverse health effects on the organism are defined as endocrine disruptors. Nonylphenol is one of the most abundant alkylphenol ethoxylate derivatives, being detected in food products. Diverse studies have classified nonylphenol as hazardous to the health, especially to male reproduction. This in vitro study aimed to examine the effects of 4-nonylphenol on androstenedione and testosterone production as well as on the viability of Leydig cells of NMRI mice. The cells were cultured for 44 h with addition of 0.04; 0.2; 1.0; 2.5 and 5.0 μg/ml of 4-nonylphenol and compared to the control. Quantification of testosterone and androstenedione directly from aliquots of the medium was performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Cell viability was measured by the metabolic activity assay for mitochondrial functional activity. Androstenedione production significantly (P < 0.001) increased with 1.0; 2.5 and 5.0 μg/ml 4-nonylphenol. Although cAMP-stimulated testosterone production was not significantly affected by 4-nonylphenol, a tendency to attenuate the level of testosterone in the Leydig cells treated with 2.5 and 5.0 μg/ml 4-nonylphenol was observed. The viability of mouse Leydig cells was slightly increased at the lowest doses of 4-nonylphenol (0.04 and 0.2 μg/ml). We also observed an increase at higher concentrations of the substance (1.0; 2.5 and 5.0 μg/ml), but this increase was not significant. Further investigations are required to establish the biological significance and possible reproductive implications.

Thymoquinone supplementation ameliorates lead-induced testis function impairment in adult rats

This study was realized to investigate the possible beneficial effect of thymoquinone (TQ), the major active component of volatile oil of Nigella sativa seeds, against lead (Pb)-induced inhibition of rat testicular functions. Adult rats were randomized into four groups: a control group receiving no treatment; a Pb group exposed to 2000 parts per million (ppm) of Pb acetate in drinking water; a Pb-TQ group co-treated with Pb (as in Pb group) plus TQ (5 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)/day, per orally (p.o.)); and a TQ group receiving TQ (5 mg/kg b.w./day, p.o.). All treatments were for 5 weeks. No significant differences were observed for the body weight gain or for relative testes weight among the four groups of animals. Testicular Pb content significantly increased in metal-intoxicated rats compared with that in control rats. TQ supplementation had no effect on this testicular Pb accumulation. Interestingly, when coadministrated with Pb, TQ significantly improved the low plasma testosterone level and the decreased epididymal sperm count caused by Pb. In conclusion, the results suggest, for the first time, that TQ protects against Pb-induced impairment of testicular steroidogenic and spermatogenic functions. This study will open new perspectives for the clinical use of TQ in Pb intoxication.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: elucidating our understanding of their role in sex and gender-relevant end points

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are diverse and pervasive and may have significant consequence for health, including reproductive development and expression of sex-/gender-sensitive parameters. This review chapter discusses what is known about common EDCs and their effects on reproductively relevant end points. It is proposed that one way that EDCs may exert such effects is by altering steroid levels (androgens or 17-estradiol, E₂) and/or intracellular E₂ receptors (ERs) in the hypothalamus and/or hippocampus. Basic research findings that demonstrate developmentally sensitive end points to androgens and E₂ are provided. Furthermore, an approach is suggested to examine differences in EDCs that diverge in their actions at ERs to elucidate their role in sex-/gender-sensitive parameters.

Associations of urinary metal concentrations and circulating testosterone in Chinese men

Toxicological studies have shown that metals directly or indirectly influence testosterone (T) production, but the data from humans is limited and inconsistent. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between urinary metal concentrations and circulating T in Chinese men. Urinary concentrations of 13 metals (arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, mercury, nickel, selenium and zinc) and serum levels of T were analyzed in 118 men from an infertility clinic. Multivariable linear regression was used to assess the effect of metals exposure on T. Among the measured metals, the median urinary Zn (359.36μg/g creatinine) and Co (0.16μg/g creatinine) concentrations were the highest and the lowest, respectively. Significant dose-response relationships were found between decreased T and urinary Mn and Zn, even when considering multiple metals (both P for trend <0.05). Our results indicate that elevated Mn and Zn are inversely associated with T production.

Disturbances of energetic metabolism in rat epididymal epithelial cells as a consequence of chronic lead intoxication

Adult male Wistar rats were intoxicated with 1% lead acetate (PbAc) administered in drinking water for nine months, which amounts to a period five times longer than the duration of one spermatogenesis. There were mitochondrial ultrastructure disorders of epididymal epithelial cells observed in PbAc-treated rats; also a significant lead-induced decrease in ATP concentration in epididymal epithelial cells (by 32%, P < 0.05), Adenylate Energy Charge value (AEC) (by 8%, P < 0.05) and an increase in ADP (28.5%, P < 0.05), AMP (27%, P < 0.05) and adenosine (by 56%, P < 0.05). The results were measured using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and detected even at low lead concentrations in whole blood (M:7.03 μg/dL; Q1-Q3: 2.99-7.65). The function of mitochondria in cultured epididymal epithelial cells of control and PbAc-treated animals were evaluated using fluorophores: Mitotracker Green FM and JC-1. After incubation with Mitotracker Green FM, we observed active mitochondria producing bright green fluorescence in the cytoplasm of cultured epididymal epithelial cells, both in the control group and the Pb-treated animals. Incubation of cultured epididymal epithelial cells of animals from both groups produced red-orange fluorescence with the mitochondrial JC-1 probe indicating mitochondria with high membrane potential (ΔΨm > 80-100 mV) and green fluorescence in the mitochondria with low membrane potential (ΔΨm < 80 mV). The results showed that a chronic low-level exposure to lead, even without severe clinical symptoms of contamination, disrupted the ultrastructure and energy metabolism of mitochondria in epididymal epithelial cells.

Differential effects of nonylphenol on testosterone secretion in rat Leydig cells

Nonylphenol (NP), a final metabolite of nonylphenol polyethoxylate, has been reported to interfere with male reproduction. However, its mechanisms are not fully understood. In the present study, we examined the effects of NP on steroidogenesis of testosterone in rat Leydig cells. The testosterone concentrations in rat plasma were examined after intravenous injection of NP (100 microg/kg) at different time intervals. In addition, rat Leydig cells were challenged with different concentrations of NP (4.25-127.5 microM) to evaluate its influences on testosterone steroidogenesis. Administration of NP showed a decrease of hCG-induced plasma testosterone. Moreover, in vitro experiments revealed that NP (127.5 microM) alone stimulated testosterone release through increase of both protein levels and activities of the StAR and P450(SCC). In contrast, NP inhibited hCG-induced testosterone release in rat Leydig cells. The inhibitory effect was also observed after incubation of the Leydig cells in the presence of different precursors. These results suggested that NP had differential effects on testosterone synthesis.

INHIBITORY ACTIONS OF LEAD ON STEROIDOGENESIS IN MA-10 MOUSE LEYDIG TUMOR CELLS

The inhibitory actions of Pb on StAR protein expression and steroidogenic enzymes on steroidogenesis were analyzed by both linear and 2nd order polynomial models in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. Lead acetate, ranging from 10(-8) M to 10(-5) M, caused inhibitory effects on StAR protein expression and steroidogenic enzymes. The correlation coefficients R2 (linear vs. 2nd order polynomial) were 0.93 vs. 0.96 for human chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated progesterone production, 0.38 vs. 0.79 for dibutyryl cAMP-stimulated progesterone production, 0.03 vs. 0.99 for the expression of StAR protein, 0.6 vs. 0.92 for P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme activity, and 0.52 vs. 0.96 for 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity. Thus, 2nd order polynomial model showed higher correlation coefficients than the linear model for predicting inhibitory actions of Pb on StAR protein expression and the activities of steroidogenic enzymes after exposure of Pb on steroidogenesis in MA-10 cells.

Plasma 17-alpha-OH-progesterone in male workers exposed to traffic pollutants

The aim of the study is to evaluate if the occupational exposure to urban pollutants could cause alterations on 17-alfa-hydroxy-progesterone plasma levels and related diseases in male traffic policemen. 17-alpha-OH-P is synthesized in Leydig cells and in adrenals; it influences spermiogenesis, acrosoma reaction, testosterone biosynthesis, blocking of gonadotropin secretion; it regulates learning, memory and sleep. After excluding principal confounding factors, i.e., rotating or night shifts, exposure to solvents, paints and pesticides during time-off and smoking, traffic policemen were matched with controls by age, working life and drinking habit. Finally, 112 traffic policemen and 112 controls were included in the study. In traffic policemen 17-alpha-OH-P mean values were significantly higher vs. controls. The distribution of 17-alpha-OH-P values in both groups was significant. An increased frequency of fertility disorders referred to the questionnaire items were found in traffic policemen vs. controls, but the difference was not significant. The occupational exposure to low doses of chemical urban stressor, interacting with and adding to the psychosocial ones, could alter plasma 17-alpha-OH-P concentrations in traffic policemen vs. controls. 17-alpha-OH-P could be used as an early biological marker, even before the onset of the reproductive and mental health diseases.

Regulatory mechanism of Cordyceps sinensis mycelium on mouse Leydig cell steroidogenesis

We demonstrate the mechanism by which Cordyceps sinensis (CS) mycelium regulates Leydig cell steroidogenesis. Mouse Leydig cells were treated with forskolin, H89, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, staurosporine, or steroidogenic enzyme precursors with or without 3 mg/ml CS; then testosterone production was determined. H89, but not phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or staurosporine, decreased CS-treated Leydig cell steroidogenesis. CS inhibited Leydig cell steroidogenesis by suppressing the activity of P450scc enzyme, but not 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17alpha-hydroxylase, 20alpha-hydroxylase, or 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes. Thus, CS activated the cAMP-protein kinase A signal pathway, but not protein kinase C, and attenuated P45scc enzyme activity to reduce human chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated steroidogenesis in purified mouse Leydig cells.

Case report of rat true hermaphroditism: colocalization of oocytes and granulosa and sertoli cells in the germinal cord

We describe a case of rat hermaphroditism with bilateral ovotestes. In a 7-week-old apparently male Sprague-Dawley rat, both testes were relatively small, and the right testis with a faint protrusion was somewhat round and small as compared with the left testis. Microscopically, the testes contained ovarian tissues within their tunica albugineas in conjunction with spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules. As bilateral changes, oocytes surrounded by granulosa-like cells were present in the seminiferous tubule-like germinal cord. Granulosa-like and Sertoli-like cells were layered together on the basal lamina, and theca interna-like cells were occasionally observed around the basal lamina. As unilateral changes, cystic dilatation of the germinal cords with eosinophilic fluid was seen in the lumen, and the theca interna-like cells appeared to be vacuolated. Immunohistochemically, the granulosa-like and Sertoli-like cells showed positive reactions for 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD) and vimentin, respectively. Theca interna-like cells reacted positively to both 3beta-HSD and cytochrome P-450 17alpha-hydroxylase. Ultrastructurally, the granulosa, Sertoli, and theca interna cells were also identified in the ovarian tissue. From these morphological characteristics, the male rat with bilateral ovotestes was diagnosed as true hermaphroditism.

Inhibitory mechanisms of lead on steroidogenesis in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells

Lead can directly influence Leydig cell steroidogenesis, which results in reduction of testosterone and causes low sperm counts in human beings and animals. This study investigated the effect of 6 h incubation time of lead on steroidogenesis in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. Lead acetate, ranging from 10(-8) to 10(-5) M, caused profounder inhibitory effects on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)- and dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP)-stimulated progesterone production for 6 h in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. Lead acetate significantly inhibited hCG- and dbcAMP-stimulated progesterone production from 20 to 35% in MA-10 cells at 6 h. Lead suppressed the expression of steroidogenesis acute regulatory (StAR) protein from 30 to 55%. Moreover, the activities P450 side-chain cleavage (P450scc) enzyme and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD) were reduced by lead from 15 to 25%. Thus, after 6 h exposure to lead caused profounder inhibitory effects on StAR protein expression and steroidogenic enzymes and then progesterone production compared to 2- or 3-h lead treatments in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells.

Concentration dependency in lead-inhibited steroidogenesis in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells

Lead acetate (Pb) decreases the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein and the enzymatic activities of cytochrome P-450 side-chain cleavage (P450scc) and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD) in a concentration-dependent manner in Leydig cells at 2 h, the duration of submaximal inhibition. This study was undertaken at 3 h of Pb incubation to compare the effects at maximal metal inhibition of steroidogenesis. Quantitatively a 3-h Pb incubation with MA-10 cells resulted in higher decreases in human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-stimulated progesterone production, expression of StAR protein, and the activity of 3beta-HSD compared to 2 h. In contrast, lead inhibited dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP)-stimulated progesterone production but lacked this effect at 2 h. Surprisingly, Pb at 3 h of incubation did not affect P450scc enzyme activity, yet this enzymatic activity was inhibited at 2 h. Data indicate that incubation time is a factor in Pb-induced alterations in MA- 10 cell steroidogenesis.

A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development

Depleted uranium (DU) is used in armor-penetrating munitions, military vehicle armor, and aircraft, ship and missile counterweighting/ballasting, as well as in a number of other military and commercial applications. Recent combat applications of DU alloy [i.e., Persian Gulf War (PGW) and Kosovo peacekeeping objective] resulted in human acute exposure to DU dust, vapor or aerosol, as well as chronic exposure from tissue embedding of DU shrapnel fragments. DU alloy is 99.8% 238Uranium, and emits approximately 60% of the alpha, beta, and gamma radiation found in natural uranium (4.05 x 10(-7) Ci/g DU alloy). DU is a heavy metal that is 160% more dense than lead and can remain within the body for many years and slowly solubilize. High levels of urinary uranium have been measured in PGW veterans 10 years after exposure to DU fragments and vapors. In rats, there is strong evidence of DU accumulation in tissues including testes, bone, kidneys, and brain. In vitro tests indicate that DU alloy may be both genotoxic and mutagenic, whereas a recent in vivo study suggests that tissue-embedded DU alloy may be carcinogenic in rats. There is limited available data for reproductive and teratological deficits from exposure to uranium per se, typically from oral, respiratory, or dermal exposure routes. Alternatively, there is no data available on the reproductive effects of DU embedded. This paper reviews published studies of reproductive toxicity in humans and animals from uranium or DU exposure, and discusses ongoing animal research to evaluate reproductive effects in male and female rats embedded with DU fragments, and possible consequences in F1 and F2 generations.

Effects of evodiamine on the secretion of testosterone in rat testicular interstitial cells

Evodiamine, a bioactive component isolated from the Chinese medicine Wu-chu-yu, exhibits vasodilative and antianoxic action. Although evodiamine indeed has many biological effects, its effects on the endocrine system are not clear. The present study explored the effects of evodiamine on testosterone secretion in vitro. Rat collagenase-dispersed testicular interstitial cells (TICs) were incubated with evodiamine (0 to 10(-4) mol/L) in the presence or absence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), forskolin, 8-bromo-adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-Br-cAMP), or steroidogenic precursors (including 25-hydroxycholesterol, pregnenolone, progesterone, 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, and androstenedione) at 34 degrees C for 1 hour. The testosterone concentration in the media samples was measured by radioimmunoassay. Evodiamine 10(-4) mol/L was effective to reduce both basal and hCG-stimulated testosterone secretion in rat TICs after 1, 2, or 4 hours of incubation. The stimulatory effect of forskolin on testosterone release in TICs was prevented by administration of evodiamine. Evodiamine 10(-4) mol/L also decreased 8-Br-cAMP- and androstenedione-stimulated testosterone secretion. These results suggest that evodiamine reduces testosterone secretion in rat TICs via a mechanism involving reduced activity of cAMP-related pathways and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD).

Inhibitory effect of digoxin on testosterone secretion through mechanisms involving decreases of cyclic AMP production and cytochrome P450scc activity in rat testicular interstitial cells

1. In vivo and in vitro experiments were performed to examine inhibitory effects of digoxin on testosterone secretion and to determine possible underlying mechanisms. 2. A single intravenous injection of digoxin (1 microg kg(-1)) decreased the basal and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-stimulated plasma testosterone concentrations in adult male rats. 3. Digoxin (10(-7) - 10(-4) M) decreased the basal and hCG-stimulated release of testosterone from rat testicular interstitial cells in vitro. 4. Digoxin (10(-7) - 10(-4) M) also diminished the basal and hCG-stimulated production of cyclic 3':5'-adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and attenuated the stimulatory effects of forskolin and 8-Br-cyclic AMP on testosterone production by rat testicular interstitial cells. 5. Digoxin (10(-4) M) inhibited cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (cytochrome P450sec) activity (conversion of 25-hydroxy cholesterol to pregnenolone) in the testicular interstitial cells but did not influence the activity of other steroidogenic enzymes. 6. These results suggest that digoxin inhibits the production of testosterone in rat testicular interstitial cells, at least in part, via attenuation of the activities of adenylyl cyclase and cytochrome P450sec.

The role of cyclic AMP production, calcium channel activation and enzyme activities in the inhibition of testosterone secretion by amphetamine

1. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism by which amphetamine exerts its inhibitory effect on testicular interstitial cells of male rats. 2. Administration of amphetamine (10(-12)-10(-6) M) in vitro resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of both basal and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, 0.05 iu ml(-1))-stimulated release of testosterone. 3. Amphetamine (10(-9) M) enhanced the basal and hCG-increased levels of adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP) accumulation in vitro (P<0.05) in rat testicular interstitial cells. 4. Administration of SQ22536, an adenylyl cyclase inhibitor, decreased the basal release (P<0.05) of testosterone in vitro and abolished the inhibitory effect of amphetamine. 5. Nifedipine (10(-6) M) alone decreased the secretion of testosterone (P<0.01) but it failed to modify the inhibitory action of amphetamine (10(-10)-10(-6) M). 6. Amphetamine (10(-10)-10(-6) M) significantly (P<0.05 or P<0.01) decreased the activities of 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD), P450c17, and 17-ketosteroid reductase (17-KSR) as indicated by thin-layer chromatography. (t.l.c.). 7. These results suggest that increased cyclic AMP production, decreased Ca2+ channel activity and decreased activities of 3beta-HSD, P450c17, and 17-KSR are involved in the inhibition of testosterone production induced by the administration of amphetamine.