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Purkinje cell vulnerability induced by diffuse traumatic brain injury is linked to disruption of long-range neuronal circuits. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2022; 10:129. [PMID: 36064443 PMCID: PMC9446851 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-022-01435-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar dysfunction is commonly observed following traumatic brain injury (TBI). While direct impact to the cerebellum by TBI is rare, cerebellar pathology may be caused by indirect injury via cortico-cerebellar pathways. To address the hypothesis that degeneration of Purkinje cells (PCs), which constitute the sole output from the cerebellum, is linked to long-range axonal injury and demyelination, we used the central fluid percussion injury (cFPI) model of widespread traumatic axonal injury in mice. Compared to controls, TBI resulted in early PC loss accompanied by alterations in the size of pinceau synapses and levels of non-phosphorylated neurofilament in PCs. A combination of vDISCO tissue clearing technique and immunohistochemistry for vesicular glutamate transporter type 2 show that diffuse TBI decreased mossy and climbing fiber synapses on PCs. At 2 days post-injury, numerous axonal varicosities were found in the cerebellum supported by fractional anisotropy measurements using 9.4 T MRI. The disruption and demyelination of the cortico-cerebellar circuits was associated with poor performance of brain-injured mice in the beam-walk test. Despite a lack of direct input from the injury site to the cerebellum, these findings argue for novel long-range mechanisms causing Purkinje cell injury that likely contribute to cerebellar dysfunction after TBI.
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Johnson NH, Hadad R, Taylor RR, Rodríguez Pilar J, Salazar O, Llompart-Pou JA, Dietrich WD, Keane RW, Pérez-Bárcena J, de Rivero Vaccari JP. Inflammatory Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15060660. [PMID: 35745576 PMCID: PMC9227014 DOI: 10.3390/ph15060660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has a complex pathology in which the initial injury releases damage associated proteins that exacerbate the neuroinflammatory response during the chronic secondary injury period. One of the major pathological players in the inflammatory response after TBI is the inflammasome. Increased levels of inflammasome proteins during the acute phase after TBI are associated with worse functional outcomes. Previous studies reveal that the level of inflammasome proteins in biological fluids may be used as promising new biomarkers for the determination of TBI functional outcomes. In this study, we provide further evidence that inflammatory cytokines and inflammasome proteins in serum may be used to determine injury severity and predict pathological outcomes. In this study, we analyzed blood serum from TBI patients and respective controls utilizing Simple Plex inflammasome and V-PLEX inflammatory cytokine assays. We performed statistical analyses to determine which proteins were significantly elevated in TBI individuals. The receiver operating characteristics (ROC) were determined to obtain the area under the curve (AUC) to establish the potential fit as a biomarker. Potential biomarkers were then compared to documented patient Glasgow coma scale scores via a correlation matrix and a multivariate linear regression to determine how respective biomarkers are related to the injury severity and pathological outcome. Inflammasome proteins and inflammatory cytokines were elevated after TBI, and the apoptosis-associated speck like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC), interleukin (IL)-18, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-4 and IL-6 were the most reliable biomarkers. Additionally, levels of these proteins were correlated with known clinical indicators of pathological outcome, such as the Glasgow coma scale (GCS). Our results show that inflammatory cytokines and inflammasome proteins are promising biomarkers for determining pathological outcomes after TBI. Additionally, levels of biomarkers could potentially be utilized to determine a patient’s injury severity and subsequent pathological outcome. These findings show that inflammation-associated proteins in the blood are reliable biomarkers of injury severity that can also be used to assess the functional outcomes of TBI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan H. Johnson
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (N.H.J.); (R.H.); (R.W.K.)
| | - Roey Hadad
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (N.H.J.); (R.H.); (R.W.K.)
| | - Ruby Rose Taylor
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (R.R.T.); (W.D.D.)
| | - Javier Rodríguez Pilar
- Intensive Care Department, Son Espases University Hospital, 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain; (J.R.P.); (O.S.); (J.A.L.-P.); (J.P.-B.)
| | - Osman Salazar
- Intensive Care Department, Son Espases University Hospital, 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain; (J.R.P.); (O.S.); (J.A.L.-P.); (J.P.-B.)
| | - Juan Antonio Llompart-Pou
- Intensive Care Department, Son Espases University Hospital, 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain; (J.R.P.); (O.S.); (J.A.L.-P.); (J.P.-B.)
| | - W. Dalton Dietrich
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (R.R.T.); (W.D.D.)
| | - Robert W. Keane
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (N.H.J.); (R.H.); (R.W.K.)
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (R.R.T.); (W.D.D.)
| | - Jon Pérez-Bárcena
- Intensive Care Department, Son Espases University Hospital, 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain; (J.R.P.); (O.S.); (J.A.L.-P.); (J.P.-B.)
| | - Juan Pablo de Rivero Vaccari
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (R.R.T.); (W.D.D.)
- Correspondence:
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Giordano KR, Law LM, Henderson J, Rowe RK, Lifshitz J. Time Course of Remote Neuropathology Following Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury in the Male Rat. Exp Neurobiol 2022; 31:105-115. [PMID: 35673999 PMCID: PMC9194637 DOI: 10.5607/en21027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can affect different regions throughout the brain. Regions near the site of impact are the most vulnerable to injury. However, damage to distal regions occurs. We investigated progressive neuropathology in the dorsal hippocampus (near the impact) and cerebellum (distal to the impact) after diffuse TBI. Adult male rats were subjected to midline fluid percussion injury or sham injury. Brain tissue was stained by the amino cupric silver stain. Neuropathology was quantified in sub-regions of the dorsal hippocampus at 1, 7, and 28 days post-injury (DPI) and coronal cerebellar sections at 1, 2, and 7 DPI. The highest observed neuropathology in the dentate gyrus occurred at 7 DPI which attenuated by 28 DPI, whereas the highest observed neuropathology was at 1 DPI in the CA3 region. There was no significant neuropathology in the CA1 region at any time point. Neuropathology was increased at 7 DPI in the cerebellum compared to shams and stripes of pathology were observed in the molecular layer perpendicular to the cerebellar cortical surface. Together these data show that diffuse TBI can result in neuropathology across the brain. By describing the time course of pathology in response to TBI, it is possible to build the temporal profile of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Giordano
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA.,Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.,Phoenix Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Phoenix, AZ 85012, USA
| | - L Matthew Law
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA.,Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.,Phoenix Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Phoenix, AZ 85012, USA
| | - Jordan Henderson
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA.,Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Rachel K Rowe
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Jonathan Lifshitz
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA.,Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.,Phoenix Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Phoenix, AZ 85012, USA
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Stelfa G, Vavers E, Svalbe B, Serzants R, Miteniece A, Lauberte L, Grinberga S, Gukalova B, Dambrova M, Zvejniece L. Reduced GFAP Expression in Bergmann Glial Cells in the Cerebellum of Sigma-1 Receptor Knockout Mice Determines the Neurobehavioral Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11611. [PMID: 34769042 PMCID: PMC8584110 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroprotective effects of Sigma-1 receptor (S1R) ligands have been observed in multiple animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Traumatic brain injury (TBI)-related neurodegeneration can induce long-lasting physical, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities. The aim of our study was to evaluate the role of S1R in the development of neurological deficits after TBI. Adult male wild-type CD-1 (WT) and S1R knockout (S1R-/-) mice were subjected to lateral fluid percussion injury, and behavioral and histological outcomes were assessed for up to 12 months postinjury. Neurological deficits and motor coordination impairment were less pronounced in S1R-/- mice with TBI than in WT mice with TBI 24 h after injury. TBI-induced short-term memory impairments were present in WT but not S1R-/- mice 7 months after injury. Compared to WT animals, S1R-/- mice exhibited better motor coordination and less pronounced despair behavior for up to 12 months postinjury. TBI induced astrocyte activation in the cortex of WT but not S1R-/- mice. S1R-/- mice presented a significantly reduced GFAP expression in Bergmann glial cells in the molecular layer of the cerebellum compared to WT mice. Our findings suggest that S1R deficiency reduces TBI-induced motor coordination impairments by reducing GFAP expression in Bergmann glial cells in the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gundega Stelfa
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, K Helmana Str. 8, LV-3001 Jelgava, Latvia
| | - Edijs Vavers
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
| | - Baiba Svalbe
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
| | - Rinalds Serzants
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Riga Stradins University, Dzirciema Str. 16, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia
| | - Anna Miteniece
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Lasma Lauberte
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
| | - Solveiga Grinberga
- Laboratory of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.G.); (B.G.)
| | - Baiba Gukalova
- Laboratory of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.G.); (B.G.)
| | - Maija Dambrova
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Riga Stradins University, Dzirciema Str. 16, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia
| | - Liga Zvejniece
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles Str. 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (E.V.); (B.S.); (R.S.); (A.M.); (L.L.); (M.D.); (L.Z.)
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Dolenec P, Pilipović K, Janković T, Župan G. Pattern of Neuronal and Axonal Damage, Glial Response, and Synaptic Changes in Rat Cerebellum within the First Week following Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2021; 79:1163-1182. [PMID: 33057716 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlaa111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined damage and repair processes in the rat cerebellum within the first week following moderate traumatic brain injury (TBI) induced by lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) over the left parietal cortex. Rats were killed 1, 3, or 7 days after the injury or sham procedure. Fluoro-Jade B staining revealed 2 phases of neurodegenerative changes in the cell bodies and fibers: first, more focal, 1 day after the LFPI, and second, widespread, starting on post-injury day 3. Purkinje cell loss was detected in posterior lobule IX 1 day following LFPI. Apoptosis was observed in the cerebellar cortex, on days 1 and 7 following LFPI, and was not caspase- or apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF)-mediated. AIF immunostaining indicated axonal damage in the cerebellar white matter tracts 3- and 7-days post-injury. Significant astrocytosis and microgliosis were noticed on day 7 following LFPI at the sites of neuronal damage and loss. Immunohistochemical labeling with the presynaptic markers synaptophysin and growth-associated protein-43 revealed synaptic perturbations already on day 1 that were more pronounced at later time points following LFPI. These results provide new insights into pathophysiological alterations in the cerebellum and their mechanisms following cerebral TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Dolenec
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Kristina Pilipović
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Tamara Janković
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Gordana Župan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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Electrophysiological Correlates of Blast-Wave Induced Cerebellar Injury. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13633. [PMID: 30206255 PMCID: PMC6134123 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31728-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms underlying traumatic neural injury and the sequelae of events in the acute phase is important for deciding on the best window of therapeutic intervention. We hypothesized that evoked potentials (EP) recorded from the cerebellar cortex can detect mild levels of neural trauma and provide a qualitative assessment tool for progression of cerebellar injury in time. The cerebellar local field potentials evoked by a mechanical tap on the hand and collected with chronically implanted micro-ECoG arrays on the rat cerebellar cortex demonstrated substantial changes both in amplitude and timing as a result of blast-wave induced injury. The results revealed that the largest EP changes occurred within the first day of injury, and partial recoveries were observed from day-1 to day-3, followed by a period of gradual improvements (day-7 to day-14). The mossy fiber (MF) and climbing fiber (CF) mediated components of the EPs were affected differentially. The behavioral tests (ladder rung walking) and immunohistological analysis (calbindin and caspase-3) did not reveal any detectable changes at these blast pressures that are typically considered as mild (100-130 kPa). The results demonstrate the sensitivity of the electrophysiological method and its use as a tool to monitor the progression of cerebellar injuries in longitudinal animal studies.
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Reeber SL, Arancillo M, Sillitoe RV. Bergmann Glia are Patterned into Topographic Molecular Zones in the Developing and Adult Mouse Cerebellum. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2018; 17:392-403. [PMID: 24906823 PMCID: PMC4291305 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-014-0571-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cerebellar circuits are patterned into an array of topographic parasagittal domains called zones. Zones are best revealed by gene expression, circuit anatomy, and cellular degeneration patterns. Thus far, the study of zones has been focused heavily on how neurons are organized. Because of this, detailed neuronal patterning maps have been established for Purkinje cells, granule cells, Golgi cells, unipolar brush cells, and also for the terminal field organization of climbing fiber and mossy fiber afferents. In comparison, however, it remains poorly understood if glial cells are also organized into zones. We have identified an Npy-Gfp BAC transgenic mouse line (Tau-Sapphire Green fluorescent protein (Gfp) is under the control of the neuropeptide Y (Npy) gene regulatory elements) that can be used to label Bergmann glial cells with Golgi-like resolution. In these adult transgenic mice, we found that Npy-Gfp expression was localized to Bergmann glia mainly in lobules VI/VII and IX/X. Using double immunofluorescence, we show that in these lobules, Npy-Gfp expression in the Bergmann glia overlaps with the pattern of the small heat shock protein HSP25, a Purkinje cell marker for zones located in lobules VI/VII and IX/X. Developmental analysis starting from the day of birth showed that HSP25 and Npy-Gfp expression follow a similar program of spatial and temporal patterning. However, loss of Npy signaling did not alter the patterning of Purkinje cell zones. We conclude that Bergmann glial cells are zonally organized and their patterns are restricted by boundaries that also confine cerebellar neurons into a topographic circuit map.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey L Reeber
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Marife Arancillo
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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Ordek G, Proddutur A, Santhakumar V, Pfister BJ, Sahin M. Electrophysiological monitoring of injury progression in the rat cerebellar cortex. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:197. [PMID: 25346664 PMCID: PMC4191519 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The changes of excitability in affected neural networks can be used as a marker to study the temporal course of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The cerebellum is an ideal platform to study brain injury mechanisms at the network level using the electrophysiological methods. Within its crystalline morphology, the cerebellar cortex contains highly organized topographical subunits that are defined by two main inputs, the climbing (CFs) and mossy fibers (MFs). Here we demonstrate the use of cerebellar evoked potentials (EPs) mediated through these afferent systems for monitoring the injury progression in a rat model of fluid percussion injury (FPI). A mechanical tap on the dorsal hand was used as a stimulus, and EPs were recorded from the paramedian lobule (PML) of the posterior cerebellum via multi-electrode arrays (MEAs). Post-injury evoked response amplitudes (EPAs) were analyzed on a daily basis for 1 week and compared with pre-injury values. We found a trend of consistently decreasing EPAs in all nine animals, losing as much as 72 ± 4% of baseline amplitudes measured before the injury. Notably, our results highlighted two particular time windows; the first 24 h of injury in the acute period and day-3 to day-7 in the delayed period where the largest drops (~50% and 24%) were observed in the EPAs. In addition, cross-correlations of spontaneous signals between electrode pairs declined (from 0.47 ± 0.1 to 0.35 ± 0.04, p < 0.001) along with the EPAs throughout the week of injury. In support of the electrophysiological findings, immunohistochemical analysis at day-7 post-injury showed detectable Purkinje cell loss at low FPI pressures and more with the largest pressures used. Our results suggest that sensory evoked potentials (SEPs) recorded from the cerebellar surface can be a useful technique to monitor the course of cerebellar injury and identify the phases of injury progression even at mild levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gokhan Ordek
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Archana Proddutur
- Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences Newark, NJ, USA
| | | | - Bryan J Pfister
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Mesut Sahin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology Newark, NJ, USA
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Liu P, Li YS, Quartermain D, Boutajangout A, ji Y. Inhaled nitric oxide improves short term memory and reduces the inflammatory reaction in a mouse model of mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2013; 1522:67-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2012] [Revised: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Gugger OS, Kapfhammer JP. Reduced size of the dendritic tree does not protect Purkinje cells from excitotoxic death. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:774-83. [PMID: 19798747 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Purkinje cell loss by excitotoxic damage is a typical finding in many cerebellar diseases. One important aspect of this high sensitivity of Purkinje cells to excitotoxic death might be the enormous size of their dendritic tree, with a high load of excitatory glutamate receptors. We have studied whether reduction in the size of the dendritic tree might confer resistance against excitotoxic death to Purkinje cells. We have grown Purkinje cells in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures under chronic activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors or of protein kinase C. Both treatments strongly reduced dendritic tree size. After this treatment, cells were exposed to the glutamate receptor agonist AMPA, which has a strong excitotoxic effect on Purkinje cells. We found that Purkinje cells with small dendritic trees were as sensitive to AMPA exposure as untreated control cells with large dendritic trees. Immunostaining against vesicular glutamate transporter 1 revealed that the small dendritic trees were densely covered by glutamatergic terminals. Our results indicate that the expansion of the dendritic tree and the total number of AMPA receptors per neuron do not play a major role in determining the susceptibility of Purkinje cells to excitotoxic death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia S Gugger
- Anatomical Institute, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Stevenson CB, Leach JL, Gupta A, Crone KR. Cystic degeneration of the cerebellar tonsils in pediatric patients with Chiari Type I malformation. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2009; 4:557-63. [PMID: 19951044 DOI: 10.3171/2009.7.peds09174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT The operative indications and treatment algorithms for pediatric patients with Chiari Type I malformation (CM-I) vary widely. When an intradural approach and duraplasty are thought necessary at the time of surgery, neurosurgeons may elect to fulgurate or resect a portion of the cerebellar tonsils. Histological analyses of cerebellar tonsils resected during decompression in pediatric patients with CM-I have revealed multiple abnormal findings including extensive ischemic and degenerative changes. The authors describe an interesting phenomenon of cystic degeneration in the distal ends of the cerebellar tonsils in children undergoing operative treatment of CM-I. METHODS The authors reviewed the clinical database of 440 pediatric patients who underwent surgical decompression for CM-I performed by a single surgeon. The clinical course, preoperative MR imaging and intraoperative ultrasound characteristics, and histological findings in 3 children found to have tonsillar cystic degeneration were analyzed and detailed. RESULTS Cystic changes were subtle but uniformly evident on preoperative MR imaging and were more readily apparent on intraoperative ultrasonography. In each patient, the tonsillar cyst was resected. Histological examination revealed areas of cystic degenerative change characterized by distortion of the normal cerebellar architecture with absent Purkinje and internal granular cell layers. All children experienced improvement in their symptoms, without complication, postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS Cystic degeneration of the tonsils in pediatric patients with CM-I is an uncommon pathological process most likely resulting from long-standing and excessive compression. Based on their experience, the authors advocate expeditious surgical treatment, including intradural exploration and capacious duraplasty, for patients in whom there is evidence of this phenomenon on preoperative imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles B Stevenson
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Potts MB, Adwanikar H, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Models of traumatic cerebellar injury. THE CEREBELLUM 2009; 8:211-21. [PMID: 19495901 PMCID: PMC2734258 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-009-0114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Accepted: 05/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Studies of human TBI demonstrate that the cerebellum is sometimes affected even when the initial mechanical insult is directed to the cerebral cortex. Some of the components of TBI, including ataxia, postural instability, tremor, impairments in balance and fine motor skills, and even cognitive deficits, may be attributed in part to cerebellar damage. Animal models of TBI have begun to explore the vulnerability of the cerebellum. In this paper, we review the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and putative mechanisms underlying cerebellar damage with an emphasis on experimental models that have been used to further elucidate this poorly understood but important aspect of TBI. Animal models of indirect (supratentorial) trauma to the cerebellum, including fluid percussion, controlled cortical impact, weight drop impact acceleration, and rotational acceleration injuries, are considered. In addition, we describe models that produce direct trauma to the cerebellum as well as those that reproduce specific components of TBI including axotomy, stab injury, in vitro stretch injury, and excitotoxicity. Overall, these models reveal robust characteristics of cerebellar damage including regionally specific Purkinje cell injury or loss, activation of glia in a distinct spatial pattern, and traumatic axonal injury. Further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of cerebellar trauma, and the experimental models discussed here offer an important first step toward achieving that objective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Potts
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, Brain and Spinal Injury Center, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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Caeyenberghs K, van Roon D, Swinnen S, Smits-Engelsman B. Deficits in executed and imagined aiming performance in brain-injured children. Brain Cogn 2009; 69:154-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 07/01/2008] [Accepted: 07/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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15
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Ji KA, Yang MS, Jeong HK, Min KJ, Kang SH, Jou I, Joe EH. Resident microglia die and infiltrated neutrophils and monocytes become major inflammatory cells in lipopolysaccharide-injected brain. Glia 2007; 55:1577-88. [PMID: 17823975 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Generally, it has been accepted that microglia play important roles in brain inflammation. However, recently several studies suggested possible infiltration of blood neutrophils and monocytes into the brain. To understand contribution of microglia and blood inflammatory cells to brain inflammation, the behavior of microglia, neutrophils, and monocytes was investigated in LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-injected substantia nigra pars compacta, cortex, and hippocampus of normal and/or leukopenic rats using specific markers of neutrophils (myeloperoxidase, MPO), and microglia and monocytes (ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule-1, Iba-1), as well as a general marker for these inflammatory cells (CD11b). CD11b-immunopositive (CD11b(+)) cells and Iba-1(+) cells displayed similar behavior in intact and LPS-injected brain at 6 h after the injection. Interestingly, however, CD11b(+) cells and Iba-1(+) cells displayed significantly different behavior at 12 h: Iba-1(+) cells disappeared while CD11b(+) cells became round in shape. We found that CD11b/Iba-1-double positive (CD11b(+)/Iba-1(+)) ramified microglia died within 6 h after LPS injection. The round CD11b(+) cells detected at 12 h were MPO(+). These CD11b(+)/MPO(+) cells were not found in leukopenic rats, suggestive of neutrophil infiltration. MPO(+) neutrophils expressed inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin-1beta, cyclooxygenase-2, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, but died within 18 h. CD11b(+) cells detected at 24 h appeared to be infiltrated monocytes, since these cells were once labeled with Iba-1 and were not found in leukopenic rats. Furthermore, transplanted monocytes were detectable in LPS-injected brain. These results suggest that at least a part of neutrophils and monocytes could have been misinterpreted as activated microglia in inflamed brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung-Ae Ji
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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16
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Bell JD, Ai J, Chen Y, Baker AJ. Mild in vitro trauma induces rapid Glur2 endocytosis, robustly augments calcium permeability and enhances susceptibility to secondary excitotoxic insult in cultured Purkinje cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 130:2528-42. [PMID: 17664176 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awm164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Mild brain trauma results in a wide range of neurological symptoms that are not easily explained by the primary pathology. Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum are selectively vulnerable to brain trauma, including indirect remote trauma to the forebrain. This vulnerability manifests itself as a selective and delayed cell loss, for which the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Alterations to the surface expression of calcium impermeable AMPA receptors (GluR2-containing) may mediate post-traumatic calcium overload, and initiate biochemical cascades that ultimately cause progressive cell death. Our current study examined this hypothesis using an in vitro model of mild Purkinje trauma, delivered by an elastic stretch at 2.5-2.9 pounds per square inch (psi). This mild trauma alone did not increase cell loss as measured by propidium iodide (PI) uptake (at 20 h) compared to uninjured controls. However, there was a marked increase in cell loss, when cells following mild trauma, were exposed to 10 microM AMPA for 1 h compared to either mild trauma or AMPA exposure alone. Mild injury rendered Purkinje neurons significantly more permeable to AMPA-stimulated (4 microM) calcium influx at 15 min post-injury, including a sustained calcium plateau. This effect was eliminated by inhibiting protein kinase C-dependent GluR2 endocytosis with 2 microM Go6976 or blocking the calcium pore of GluR1/3 containing AMPARs with 500 nM 1-naphthylacetyl spermine (Naspm). Nifedipine (2 microM) eliminated the calcium plateau following mild injury but not the initial spike of Ca2+ increase. These results suggest that mild injuries resulted in a rapid AMPA receptor subtype switch (GluR2 was replaced by GluR1/3), which in turn resulted in an enhanced Ca2+ permeability. We further confirmed this by immunocytochemistry. Dendritic GluR2 co-localization with the pre-synaptic marker synaptophysin was markedly down-regulated at 15 min following mild stretch (P < 0.01), indicative of a rapid decrease in the synaptic expression of receptors containing this subunit. Carboxyfluorescence (CBF) assays revealed that mild stretch did not alter membrane integrity. Finally, we demonstrated that the combination of 500 nM Naspm and 5 nM Go6976 conferred a powerful neuroprotective effect on Purkinje cells by effectively eliminating the effects of mild stretch combined with AMPA in 95% of cells. These results represent a newly described mechanism rendering neurons susceptible to secondary injuries following trauma. Prevention of GluR2 endocytosis may be critical in the development of pharmacotherapies aimed at mild, seemingly inconsequential trauma, to avoid ensuing secondary damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Bell
- Cara Phelan Center for Trauma Research, St Michaels Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Pueyrredon F, Spaho N, Arroyave I, Vinters H, Lazareff J. Histological findings in cerebellar tonsils of patients with Chiari type I malformation. Childs Nerv Syst 2007; 23:427-9. [PMID: 17119980 DOI: 10.1007/s00381-006-0252-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2006] [Revised: 07/19/2006] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Cerebellar tonsillectomy is often performed for relief of symptoms associated with Chiari type I malformation (CMI). Nonetheless, the idea of removing supposedly healthy central nervous tissue has been a source of concern for neurosurgeons. The aim of this paper is to determine the histological changes in the cerebellar tonsils of patients with a wide range of symptoms and conditions related to CMI. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cerebellar tonsils of 43 pediatric patients with CMI were sent to pathology for histological examination. CONCLUSION The cerebellar tonsils in a great majority of CMI patients can be abnormal. We suggest that the reported histological findings are secondary to injury and ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Pueyrredon
- Division of Neurosurgery, Pediatric Neurosurgery, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7039, USA
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18
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Matschke J, Laas R, Schulz F. Cerebellar atrophy following mild head injury in a 4-year-old girl. Pediatr Neurosurg 2007; 43:330-3. [PMID: 17627153 DOI: 10.1159/000103317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2006] [Accepted: 07/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cerebellar atrophy following severe head injury in infants has been described in imaging studies. We report the case of a 4-year-old girl who died of accidental hypothermia. Three weeks before, she had sustained head injury after falling on the back of her head with linear fracture of the occipital bone. Neuropathological examination of the girl's brain revealed cerebellar atrophy with specific loss of Purkinje cells. We present findings of detailed neuropathological studies and discuss possible mechanisms of posttraumatic cerebellar atrophy. To the best of our knowledge, cerebellar atrophy following mild head injury in man has not been described morphologically so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Matschke
- Forensic Neuropathology, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
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Park E, Ai J, Baker AJ. Cerebellar injury: clinical relevance and potential in traumatic brain injury research. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2007; 161:327-38. [PMID: 17618988 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)61023-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A treatment for traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains elusive despite compelling evidence from animal models for a variety of therapeutic targets. Numerous animal models have been developed to address the wide spectrum of mechanisms involved in the progression of secondary injury after TBI. Evidence from well-established models such as the fluid percussion injury (FPI) device, cortical impact model, and the impact acceleration model has demonstrated diffuse pathophysiological mechanisms throughout various brain structures. More specifically, we have recently extended characterization of the FPI model to include pathophysiological changes in the cerebellum following unilateral fluid percussion. Data suggest that the cerebellum is susceptible to selective Purkinje cell loss as well as white matter dysfunction. Despite the cerebellum's low profile in TBI research, there is evidence to warrant further study of the cerebellum to examine mechanisms of neuronal death and traumatic axonal injury. Furthermore, evidence from clinical literature and basic science suggests that some components of TBI pathophysiology have a basis in cerebellar dysfunction. This review highlights some of the recent findings in cerebellar trauma and builds an argument for including the cerebellum as a model to assess mechanisms of secondary injury and its potential contribution to the pathology of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Park
- St. Michael's Hospital, Trauma Research, and University of Toronto, Institute of Medical Sciences, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A, Canada
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Park E, Liu E, Shek M, Park A, Baker AJ. Heavy neurofilament accumulation and alpha-spectrin degradation accompany cerebellar white matter functional deficits following forebrain fluid percussion injury. Exp Neurol 2006; 204:49-57. [PMID: 17070521 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2006] [Revised: 08/10/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Evidence for diffuse traumatic axonal injury (TAI) in clinical cases and animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) indicate that pathophysiological mechanisms extend to regions remote from the injury epicenter. The potential for indirect cerebellar trauma contributing to TBI pathophysiology is of significance since impairment of motor function and coordination is a common consequence of TBI but is also a domain associated with cerebellar function. The relationship between cerebellar white matter structure and function following traumatic head injury has not been examined. Using the fluid percussion injury (FPI) device applied unilaterally in the forebrain, evoked compound action potential (CAP) recordings from cerebellar white matter of Sprague-Dawley rats indicated a spatial and temporal pattern of electrophysiological deficits throughout the cerebellar vermis. The posterior and middle lobules of the cerebellum exhibited significant declines in evoked CAP amplitude compared to sham controls (p=0.004, p=0.005, respectively). Duration of the CAP decay also increased, suggesting that functional white matter deficits were a combination of axonal loss and compromised axonal integrity. Functional white matter deficits persisted at 14 days post-injury in the posterior and middle regions of the cerebellum. Evidence of heavy chain neurofilament (NF200) degradation was observed at 1 day post-injury by Western blot. Immunohistochemistry labeling for NF200 indicated the presence of highly immunoreactive NF200 axonal swellings consistent with morphological features of TAI. alpha-Spectrin degradation was also observed between 1 and 14 days post-injury. This study demonstrates the electrophysiological consequences of cerebellar white matter injury and a temporal profile of NF200 and spectrin degradation following forebrain FPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Park
- Cara Phelan Center for Trauma Research, St. Michael's Hospital, 7082 Bond Wing, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5B 1W8
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Igarashi T, Potts MB, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Injury severity determines Purkinje cell loss and microglial activation in the cerebellum after cortical contusion injury. Exp Neurol 2006; 203:258-68. [PMID: 17045589 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2006] [Revised: 08/05/2006] [Accepted: 08/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Clinical evidence suggests that the cerebellum is damaged after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and experimental studies have validated these observations. We have previously shown cerebellar vulnerability, as demonstrated by Purkinje cell loss and microglial activation, after fluid percussion brain injury. In this study, we examine the effect of graded controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury on the cerebellum in the context of physiologic and anatomical parameters that have been shown by others to be sensitive to injury severity. Adult male rats received mild, moderate, or severe CCI and were euthanized 7 days later. We first validated the severity of the initial injury using physiologic criteria, including apnea and blood pressure, during the immediate postinjury period. Increasing injury severity was associated with an increased incidence of apnea and higher mortality. Severe injury also induced transient hypertension followed by hypotension, while lower grade injuries produced an immediate and sustained hypotension. We next evaluated the pattern of subcortical neuronal loss in response to graded injuries. There was significant neuronal loss in the ipsilateral cortex, hippocampal CA2/CA3, and laterodorsal thalamus that was injury severity-dependent and that paralleled microglial activation. Similarly, there was a distinctive pattern of Purkinje cell loss and microglial activation in the cerebellar vermis that varied with injury severity. Together, these findings emphasize the vulnerability of the cerebellum to TBI. That a selective pattern of Purkinje cell loss occurs regardless of the type of injury suggests a generalized response that is a likely determinant of recovery and a target for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuji Igarashi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 521 Parnassus Avenue, Room C-224, San Francisco, CA 94143-0520, USA
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22
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Ai J, Liu E, Park E, Baker AJ. Structural and functional alterations of cerebellum following fluid percussion injury in rats. Exp Brain Res 2006; 177:95-112. [PMID: 16924485 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-006-0654-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 07/25/2006] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellum was shown to be vulnerable to traumatic brain injury (TBI) in experimental animals. However, the detailed pathological and functional changes within the cerebellum following TBI are not known. Using our established cerebellum fluid percussion injury (FPI) model, we characterized the temporal pattern and the nature of structural damage following FPI, as well as the functional changes of Purkinje cells in response to climbing fiber activation. Our results showed that 60% of Purkinje cells died within the first 24 h following moderate FPI. In contrast, clusters of densely stained shrunken granule cells were stained positive for terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated UTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) in 1, 3 or 7 days following FPI animals. We also observed an accompanying structural damage to the cerebellar white matter tract. Disconnected axonal fibers appeared 1 day post-FPI, and loss of white matter fibers were visible 3 and 7 days post-FPI. Massive accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein (betaAPP) was found in the white matter tracts and molecular layer in the cerebellum of 1, 3 or 7 days FPI animals. Our functional study showed that the majority of Purkinje cells from 1 day and all cells from 3 to 7 days post-FPI had distorted membrane potential and synaptic responses to climbing fiber activation. These results suggested that there is a co-related structural and functional deterioration with a specific temporal pattern in the cerebellum following FPI. These observations provide a basis for future mechanistic investigations aiming to realize neuroprotection from cerebellar neuronal death and loss of cerebellar functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglu Ai
- Traumatic Brain Injury Laboratory, Cara Phelan Centre for Trauma Research, St. Michael's Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M5B 1W8.
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23
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Park E, McKnight S, Ai J, Baker AJ. Purkinje cell vulnerability to mild and severe forebrain head trauma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65:226-34. [PMID: 16651884 DOI: 10.1097/01.jnen.0000202888.29705.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathophysiological changes in the cortex, thalamus, and hippocampus have been implicated as contributors to motor and cognitive deficits in a number of animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Indirect cerebellar injury may contribute to TBI pathophysiology because impairment of motor function and coordination are common consequences of TBI, but are also domains associated with cerebellar function. However, there is a lack of direct evidence to support this claim. Hence, in this study, a dose-response relationship of the cerebellum's susceptibility was determined at four grades of fluid percussion injury (1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 atm) applied in the right lateral cerebral cortex of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. Evidence suggests primary and secondary injury mechanisms resulting in selective cerebellar Purkinje neuron (PN) loss, whereas interneurons of the molecular layer were spared. The posterior region of the cerebellar vermis displayed significant PN loss (p = 0.001) at 1 day postinjury, whereas the gyrus of the horizontal fissure and gyrus of lobules III and IV exhibited delayed PN loss at higher levels of injury severity. Interestingly, neither terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) or cleaved caspase-3 colocalized with PNs at any time point or injury severity. Expression of calbindin-28k increased in regions of greatest PN loss, suggesting that the surviving PNs possess higher calcium-buffering capacities, which may account for their survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Park
- Cara Phelan Center for Trauma Research, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Cao R, Hasuo H, Ooba S, Akasu T, Zhang X. Facilitation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in hippocampal CA1 area of rats with traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett 2006; 401:136-41. [PMID: 16574323 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on the glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the hippocampal CA1 area. A moderate impact (3.8-4.8atm) was applied onto the left parietal cerebral cortex by a fluid percussion injury (FPI) device. Conventional intracellular recordings were made from hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in vitro. Electrophysiological properties of these neurons were compared between three groups (control, FPI-ipsilateral, and FPI-contralateral). The excitability of postsynaptic membrane of CA1 pyramidal neurons was not altered by the moderate FPI; however, the evoked glutamatergic excitatory synaptic transmission in the pyramidal neurons of post-FPI-CA1 was enhanced. Paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) was significantly suppressed in both the FPI-ipsilateral and FPI-contralateral groups and the frequencies of mEPSPs in neurons from the bilateral FPI groups were greater than the frequency in the control group. These results suggest that the glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the hipppocampal CA1 area is facilitated through presynaptic mechanisms after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruifeng Cao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurosurgical Institute of PLA, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, No. 15 West Changle Road, Xi'an Shaanxi 710032, PR China
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Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous chemical messenger which has functions in the brain in a variety of broad physiological processes, including control of cerebral blood flow, interneuronal communications, synaptic plasticity, memory formation, receptor functions, intracellular signal transmission, and release of neurotransmitters. As might be expected from the numerous and complex roles that NO normally has, it can have both beneficial and detrimental effects in disease states, including traumatic brain injury. There are two periods of time after injury when NO accumulates in the brain, immediately after injury and then again several hours-days later. The initial immediate peak in NO after injury is probably due to the activity of endothelial NOS and neuronal NOS. Pre-injury treatment with 7-nitroindazole, which probably inhibits this immediate increase in NO by neuronal NOS, is effective in improving neurological outcome in some models of traumatic brain injury (TBI). After the initial peak in NO, there can be a period of relative deficiency in NO. This period of low NO levels is associated with a low cerebral blood flow (CBF). Administration of L-arginine at this early time improves CBF, and outcome in many models. The late peak in NO after traumatic injury is probably due primarily to the activity of inducible NOS. Inhibition of inducible NOS has neuroprotective effects in most models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leela Cherian
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, 6560 Fannin St, #944, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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26
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Abstract
The object of this review is to assemble much of the literature concerning Purkinje cell death in cerebellar pathology and to relate this to what is now known about the complex topography of the cerebellar cortex. A brief introduction to Purkinje cells, and their regionalization is provided, and then the data on Purkinje cell death in mouse models and, where appropriate, their human counterparts, have been arranged according to several broad categories--naturally-occurring and targeted mutations leading to Purkinje cell death, Purkinje cell death due to toxins, Purkinje cell death in ischemia, Purkinje cell death in infection and in inherited disorders, etc. The data reveal that cerebellar Purkinje cell death is much more topographically complex than is usually appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna R Sarna
- Genes Development Research Group, Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alta., Canada T2N 4N1
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Abstract
Neurotransmission in rat cerebellum following fluid percussion injury (FPI) was studied by extracellular recording method. An increased amplitude of population spikes from presynaptic mossy fibers was detected at 3 days after FPI. However, there were no differences at 1 h, 1 day, 1 week or 2 weeks after FPI compared to nai;ve controls. An enhanced amplitude of the population spikes, as well as the after hyperpolarization component from presynaptic response of the parallel fibers, was seen in the groups at 3 days and 1 week post FPI, but not in other groups. These results indicate a presynaptic hyperexcitation was induced by FPI within a specific time window. This hyperexcitability may contribute to the reported loss of Purkinje cells after FPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglu Ai
- Trauma Brain Injury Laboratory, Cara Phelan Center for Trauma Research, St Michael's Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont M5B 1W8, Canada.
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28
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Kinoshita K, Chatzipanteli K, Alonso OF, Howard M, Dietrich WD. The effect of brain temperature on hemoglobin extravasation after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2002; 97:945-53. [PMID: 12405386 DOI: 10.3171/jns.2002.97.4.0945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Although the benefits of posttraumatic hypothermia have been reported in experimental studies, the potential for therapeutic hypothermia to increase intracerebral hemorrhage remains a clinical concern. The purpose of this study was to quantify the amount of extravasated hemoglobin after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to assess the changes in intracerebral hemoglobin concentrations under posttraumatic hypothermic and hyperthermic conditions. METHODS Intubated and anesthetized rats were subjected to fluid-percussion injury (FPI). In the first experiment, rats were divided into moderate (1.8-2.2 atm) and severe (2.4-2.7 atm) TBI groups. In the second experiment, the effects of 3 hours of posttraumatic hypothermia (33 or 30 degrees C), hyperthermia (39 degrees C), or normothermia (37 degrees C) on hemoglobin levels following moderate trauma were assessed. The rats were perfused with saline at 24 hours postinjury, and then the traumatized and contralateral hemispheres, including the cerebellum, were dissected from whole brain. The hemoglobin level in each brain was quantified using a spectrophotometric hemoglobin assay. The results of these assays indicate that moderate and severe FPI induce increased levels of hemoglobin in the ipsilateral hemisphere (p < 0.0001). After severe TBI, the hemoglobin concentration was also significantly increased in the contralateral hemisphere (p < 0.05) and cerebellum (p < 0.005). Posttraumatic hypothermia (30 degrees C) attenuated hemoglobin levels (p < 0.005) in the ipsilateral hemisphere, whereas hyperthermia had a marked adverse effect on the hemoglobin concentration in the contralateral hemisphere (p < 0.05) and cerebellum (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS Injury severity is an important determinant of the degree of hemoglobin extravasation after TBI. Posttraumatic hypothermia reduced hemoglobin extravasation, whereas hyperthermia increased hemoglobin levels compared with normothermia. These findings are consistent with previous data reporting that posttraumatic temperature manipulations alter the cerebrovascular and inflammatory consequences of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosaku Kinoshita
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Neurotrauma Research Center and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami School of Medicine, Florida 33101, USA
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29
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Kinoshita K, Chatzipanteli IK, Vitarbo E, Truettner JS, Alonso OF, Dietrich WD. Interleukin-1beta messenger ribonucleic acid and protein levels after fluid-percussion brain injury in rats: importance of injury severity and brain temperature. Neurosurgery 2002; 51:195-203; discussion 203. [PMID: 12182417 DOI: 10.1097/00006123-200207000-00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Posttraumatic temperature manipulations have been reported to significantly influence the inflammatory response to traumatic brain injury (TBI). The purpose of this study was to determine the temporal and regional profiles of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression and protein levels for the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), after moderate or severe TBI. The effects of posttraumatic hypothermia (33 degrees C) or hyperthermia (39.5 degrees C) on these consequences of TBI were then determined. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent fluid-percussion brain injury. In the first phase of the study, rats were killed 15 minutes or 1, 3, or 24 hours after moderate TBI (1.8-2.2 atmospheres), for reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis. Other groups of rats were killed 1, 3, 24, or 72 hours after moderate or severe TBI (2.4-2.7 atmospheres), for protein analysis. In the second phase, rats underwent moderate fluid-percussion brain injury, followed immediately by 3 hours of posttraumatic normothermia (37 degrees C), hyperthermia (39.5 degrees C), or hypothermia (33 degrees C), and were then killed, for analyses of protein levels and mRNA expression. Brain samples, including cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and cerebellum, were dissected and stored at -80 degrees C until analyzed. RESULTS The findings indicated that mRNA levels were increased (P < 0.05) as early as 1 hour after TBI and remained elevated up to 3 hours after moderate TBI. Although both moderate and severe TBI induced increased levels of IL-1beta (P < 0.05), increased protein levels were also noted in remote brain structures after severe TBI. Posttraumatic hypothermia attenuated IL-1beta protein levels, compared with normothermia (P < 0.05), although the levels remained elevated in comparison with sham values. In contrast, hyperthermia had no significant effect on IL-1beta levels, compared with normothermic values. Posttraumatic temperature manipulations had no significant effect on IL-1beta mRNA levels. CONCLUSION Injury severity determines the degree of IL-1beta protein level elevation after TBI. The effects of posttraumatic hypothermia on IL-1beta protein levels (an important mediator of neurodegeneration after TBI) may partly explain the established effects of posttraumatic temperature manipulations on inflammatory processes after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosaku Kinoshita
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Neurotrauma Research Center, University of Miami School of Medicine, Florida 33136, USA
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Igarashi T, Huang TT, Noble LJ. Regional vulnerability after traumatic brain injury: gender differences in mice that overexpress human copper, zinc superoxide dismutase. Exp Neurol 2001; 172:332-41. [PMID: 11716557 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2001.7820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal loss was quantified in both cortical and subcortical brain regions after traumatic brain injury in male and female nontransgenic (nTg) and transgenic (Tg) mice that overexpress human copper, zinc superoxide dismutase. Mice were euthanized at 7 days after a controlled cortical impact injury. Sections of brain were processed for immunolocalization of NeuN, a neuronal nuclear antigen, and the complement type 3 receptor, a marker of microglia/macrophages, and stained for iron. Cortical lesion volume and neuronal loss in the medial and/or lateral ventroposterior thalamic nuclei were significantly less in the nTg female compared to the nTg male (P = 0.0373 and P = 0.0023, respectively). In contrast, in CA3 of the hippocampus and laterodorsal thalamic nucleus (LD), there were no gender differences in neuronal loss between these nTg groups. Cortical lesion volume was significantly reduced in Tg males compared to nTg males (P = 0.0137) and was unchanged in the Tg females compared to the nTg females. Neuronal loss was attenuated in the CA3 and LD in the Tg females compared to the nTg females (P = 0.0252 and P = 0.0244, respectively). A similar protection was not observed in the Tg males. Microglial activation paralleled the pattern of neuronal loss and was most consistently aligned with iron deposition in the cortex and hippocampus. No overt differences were found in the pattern of microglial activation or iron staining between nTg and Tg mice nor between genders. Our findings demonstrate that neuroprotection, afforded by overexpression of copper, zinc superoxide dismutase, exhibits both regional and gender specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Igarashi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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Dlugos CA, Pentney RJ. Quantitative immunocytochemistry of glia in the cerebellar cortex of old ethanol-fed rats. Alcohol 2001; 23:63-9. [PMID: 11331103 DOI: 10.1016/s0741-8329(00)00143-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
It is clear from results of studies in this laboratory that chronic ethanol consumption causes regression of the extensive Purkinje neuron (PN) dendritic arbor. There are, however, a paucity of studies on the effects of chronic ethanol consumption on glia cells that reside in the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex with PN dendrites. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possibility that chronic ethanol consumption in old F344 rats results in gliosis within the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex. Ten 12-month-old, male, F344 rats received a liquid diet containing 35% ethanol for 40 weeks. Pair-fed controls (n=10) received a liquid diet in which maltose dextrins were substituted for ethanol. Chow-fed rats (n=10) served as controls for age. At the end of the treatment period, rats were euthanized and perfused through the aorta, and cerebella were prepared for immunocytochemistry. Free floating sections were stained with (1) glial fibrillary acidic protein antibody for labeling of Bergmann glial cells and fibers, (2) OX-42 antibody for labeling of microglia, and (3) 0.5% cresyl violet for estimates of molecular layer volume. Results indicate that the densities of Bergmann glial cell processes and microglia within the cerebellar molecular layer are not altered by ethanol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Dlugos
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, 317 Farber Hall, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214-3000, USA.
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Mattiasson GJ, Philips MF, Tomasevic G, Johansson BB, Wieloch T, McIntosh TK. The rotating pole test: evaluation of its effectiveness in assessing functional motor deficits following experimental head injury in the rat. J Neurosci Methods 2000; 95:75-82. [PMID: 10776817 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0270(99)00162-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Neurological motor dysfunction is often an integral component of the neurological sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI). In experimental TBI, neurological motor testing is an outcome measure used to monitor severity of injury, and the response to treatment. This study evaluates the effectiveness and sensitivity of the rotating pole test (RP) to characterize and evaluate the temporal course of motor deficits after lateral fluid percussion (FP) injury to the rat brain. The results are compared with the previously characterized and widely used composite neuroscore of motor function (NS). The animals were required to walk across an elevated wooden pole that was either stationary or rotating to left or right directions at different speeds. Male Wistar rats underwent lateral FP injury of moderate severity (mean 2.4 atm, n = 9) or sham surgery (n = 9), and were tested at 48 h and 7 days post-injury using the NS and RP. The results of the NS directly correlated to the results of the RP, showing a significant injury effect at both 48 h and 7 days. This is the first study to show that the RP-test detects neurological motor deficits after lateral FP injury, and suggests that this technique is a reliable behavioral tool for evaluating neurological motor function in the acute period after experimental TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Mattiasson
- Division of Experimental Brain Research, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University Hospital, Sweden.
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Sato M, Noble LJ. Involvement of the endothelin receptor subtype A in neuronal pathogenesis after traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 1998; 809:39-49. [PMID: 9795123 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)00817-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a 21 amino acid peptide that has been closely linked to cerebral vasospasm and more recently to oxidative stress after traumatic brain injury. In this study, we have examined the effects of the endothelin receptor subtype A antagonist, Ro 61-1790, on acute cortical neuronal injury and delayed neuronal death in the cerebellum after mild traumatic brain injury. Rats were administered Ro 61-1790 or vehicle for 24 h after injury and euthanized at 1 day, 3 days, or 7 days. Heat shock protein70 (HSP70), a marker of neuronal stress/injury, was immunolocalized in the cortex. Induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and enhanced immunoexpression of the complement C3bi receptor, both of which are indicators of cerebellar glial reactivity, and Purkinje cell loss were evaluated in the cerebellum. There was maximal induction of HSP70 in cortical neurons at 24 h postinjury in all animals. Drug treated animals showed significantly fewer HSP70 labeled cortical neurons at this time point. There were fewer reactive glia in the cerebellum of drug treated animals as compared to vehicle controls at 3 days postinjury. However, at 7 days postinjury glial reactivity and Purkinje cell loss were similar in both groups. These findings demonstrate that Ro 61-1790, when administered for the first 24 h postinjury, limits acute neuronal injury in the cortex, transiently influences glial reactivity in the cerebellum, and does not attenuate delayed Purkinje cell death. The latter finding may reflect the duration of infusion of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sato
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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