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Pinder C, Lebedinec R, Levine TP, Birch M, Oliver JD. Characterisation of putative class 1A DHODH-like proteins from Mucorales and dematiaceous mould species. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289441. [PMID: 37531380 PMCID: PMC10395836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Olorofim is a new antifungal in clinical development which has a novel mechanism of action against dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH). DHODH form a ubiquitous family of enzymes in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway and are split into class 1A, class 1B and class 2. Olorofim specifically targets the fungal class 2 DHODH present in a range of pathogenic moulds. The nature and number of DHODH present in many fungal species have not been addressed for large clades of this kingdom. Mucorales species do not respond to olorofim; previous work suggests they have only class 1A DHODH and so lack the class 2 target that olorofim inhibits. The dematiaceous moulds have mixed susceptibility to olorofim, yet previous analyses imply that they have class 2 DHODH. As this is at odds with their intermediate susceptibility to olorofim, we hypothesised that these pathogens may maintain a second class of DHODH, facilitating pyrimidine biosynthesis in the presence of olorofim. The aim of this study was to investigate the DHODH repertoire of clinically relevant species of Mucorales and dematiaceous moulds to further characterise these pathogens and understand variations in olorofim susceptibility. Using bioinformatic analysis, S. cerevisiae complementation and biochemical assays of recombinant protein, we provide the first evidence that two representative members of the Mucorales have only class 1A DHODH, substantiating a lack of olorofim susceptibility. In contrast, bioinformatic analyses initially suggested that seven dematiaceous species appeared to harbour both class 1A-like and class 2-like DHODH genes. However, further experimental investigation of the putative class 1A-like genes through yeast complementation and biochemical assays characterised them as dihydrouracil oxidases rather than DHODHs. These data demonstrate variation in dematiaceous mould olorofim susceptibility is not due to a secondary DHODH and builds on the growing picture of fungal dihydrouracil oxidases as an example of horizontal gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tim P Levine
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, United Kingdom
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2
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Vyas VK, Shukla T, Sharma M. Medicinal chemistry approaches for the discovery of Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitors as antimalarial agents. Future Med Chem 2023; 15:1295-1321. [PMID: 37551689 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2023-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a severe human disease and a global health problem because of drug-resistant strains. Drugs reported to prevent the growth of Plasmodium parasites target various phases of the parasites' life cycle. Antimalarial drugs can inhibit key enzymes that are responsible for the cellular growth and development of parasites. Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase is one such enzyme that is necessary for de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. This review focuses on various medicinal chemistry approaches used for the discovery and identification of selective P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitors as antimalarial agents. This comprehensive review discusses recent advances in the selective therapeutic activity of distinct chemical classes of compounds as P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitors and antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek K Vyas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 382481, India
| | - Tanvi Shukla
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 382481, India
| | - Manmohan Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 382481, India
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Maclean AE, Hayward JA, Huet D, van Dooren GG, Sheiner L. The mystery of massive mitochondrial complexes: the apicomplexan respiratory chain. Trends Parasitol 2022; 38:1041-1052. [PMID: 36302692 PMCID: PMC10434753 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The mitochondrial respiratory chain is an essential pathway in most studied eukaryotes due to its roles in respiration and other pathways that depend on mitochondrial membrane potential. Apicomplexans are unicellular eukaryotes whose members have an impact on global health. The respiratory chain is a drug target for some members of this group, notably the malaria-causing Plasmodium spp. This has motivated studies of the respiratory chain in apicomplexan parasites, primarily Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. for which experimental tools are most advanced. Studies of the respiratory complexes in these organisms revealed numerous novel features, including expansion of complex size. The divergence of apicomplexan mitochondria from commonly studied models highlights the diversity of mitochondrial form and function across eukaryotic life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Maclean
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jenni A Hayward
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Diego Huet
- Center for Tropical & Emerging Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Giel G van Dooren
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Lilach Sheiner
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
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4
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Driving antimalarial design through understanding of target mechanism. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 48:2067-2078. [PMID: 32869828 PMCID: PMC7609028 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be a global health threat, affecting approximately 219 million people in 2018 alone. The recurrent development of resistance to existing antimalarials means that the design of new drug candidates must be carefully considered. Understanding of drug target mechanism can dramatically accelerate early-stage target-based development of novel antimalarials and allows for structural modifications even during late-stage preclinical development. Here, we have provided an overview of three promising antimalarial molecular targets, PfDHFR, PfDHODH and PfA-M1, and their associated inhibitors which demonstrate how mechanism can inform drug design and be effectively utilised to generate compounds with potent inhibitory activity.
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Zeng F, Li S, Yang G, Luo Y, Qi T, Liang Y, Yang T, Zhang L, Wang R, Zhu L, Li H, Xu X. Design, synthesis, molecular modeling, and biological evaluation of acrylamide derivatives as potent inhibitors of human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 11:S2211-3835(20)30759-0. [PMID: 33078092 PMCID: PMC7558257 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2020.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is a viable target for the development of therapeutics to treat cancer and immunological diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis and multiple sclerosis (MS). Herein, a series of acrylamide-based novel DHODH inhibitors as potential RA treatment agents were designed and synthesized. 2-Acrylamidobenzoic acid analog 11 was identified as the lead compound for structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies. The replacement of the phenyl group with naphthyl moieties improved inhibitory activity significantly to double-digit nanomolar range. Further structure optimization revealed that an acrylamide with small hydrophobic groups (Me, Cl or Br) at the 2-position was preferred. Moreover, adding a fluoro atom at the 5-position of the benzoic acid enhanced the potency. The optimization efforts led to potent compounds 42 and 53‒55 with IC50 values of 41, 44, 32, and 42 nmol/L, respectively. The most potent compound 54 also displayed favorable pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles and encouraging in vivo anti-arthritic effects in a dose-dependent manner.
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Key Words
- AML, acute myeloid leukemia
- Acrylamide derivatives
- BPO, benzoyl peroxide
- CIA, collagen-induced arthritis
- DCE, 1,2-dichloroethane
- DCM, dichloromethane
- DHODH
- DHODH inhibitors
- DHODH, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase
- DMAP, 4-dimethylaminopyridine
- DMARDs, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs
- DMF, N,N-dimethylformamide
- DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide
- De novo pyrimidine biosynthesis
- EA, ethyl acetate
- FMN, flavin mononucleotide
- HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography
- HRMS, high-resolution mass spectrometry
- IBD, inflammatory bowel disease
- LAH, lithium aluminium hydride
- LCMS, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
- MS, multiple sclerosis
- MeOH, methanol
- NBS, N-bromosuccinimide
- NCS, N-chlorosuccinimide
- NSAIDs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
- PDA, photodiode array detector
- PE, petroleum ether
- PK, pharmacokinetic
- PhMe, toluene
- RA, rheumatoid arthritis
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- SEL, systemic lupus erythematosus
- TEA, triethylamine
- TFA, trifluoroacetic acid
- THF, tetrahydrofuran
- TsCl, tosyl chloride
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanxun Zeng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Shiliang Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Guantian Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yating Luo
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Tiantian Qi
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yingfan Liang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Tingyuan Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Letian Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Lili Zhu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Honglin Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaoyong Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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Same same, but different: Uncovering unique features of the mitochondrial respiratory chain of apicomplexans. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2019; 232:111204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2019.111204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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7
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Method for the separation of mitochondria and apicoplast from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Int 2019; 69:99-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Revised: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Ghosh S, Pathak S, Sonawat HM, Sharma S, Sengupta A. Metabolomic changes in vertebrate host during malaria disease progression. Cytokine 2018; 112:32-43. [PMID: 30057363 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Metabolomics refers to top-down systems biological analysis of metabolites in biological specimens. Phenotypic proximity of metabolites makes them interesting candidates for studying biomarkers of environmental stressors such as parasitic infections. Moreover, the host-parasite interaction directly impinges upon metabolic pathways since the parasite uses the host metabolite pool as a biosynthetic resource. Malarial infection, although not recognized as a classic metabolic disorder, often leads to severe metabolic changes such as hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis. Thus, metabolomic analysis of the infection has become an invaluable tool for promoting a better understanding of the host-parasite interaction and for the development of novel therapeutics. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge obtained from metabolomic studies of malarial infection in rodent models and human patients. Metabolomic analysis of experimental rodent malaria has provided significant insights into the mechanisms of disease progression including utilization of host resources by the parasite, sexual dimorphism in metabolic phenotypes, and cellular changes in host metabolism. Moreover, these studies also provide proof of concept for prediction of cerebral malaria. On the other hand, metabolite analysis of patient biofluids generates extensive data that could be of use in identifying biomarkers of infection severity and in monitoring disease progression. Through the use of metabolomic datasets one hopes to assess crucial infection-specific issues such as clinical severity, drug resistance, therapeutic targets, and biomarkers. Also discussed are nascent or newly emerging areas of metabolomics such as pre-erythrocytic stages of the infection and the host immune response. This review is organized in four broad sections-methodologies for metabolomic analysis, rodent infection models, studies of human clinical specimens, and potential of immunometabolomics. Data summarized in this review should serve as a springboard for novel hypothesis testing and lead to a better understanding of malarial infection and parasite biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumita Ghosh
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Sulabha Pathak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1, Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Haripalsingh M Sonawat
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1, Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Shobhona Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1, Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Arjun Sengupta
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Lang L, Hu Q, Wang J, Liu Z, Huang J, Lu W, Huang Y. Coptisine, a natural alkaloid from Coptidis Rhizoma
, inhibits plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. Chem Biol Drug Des 2018; 92:1324-1332. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li Lang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai China
| | - Qian Hu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai China
| | - Jingyuan Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai China
| | - Zehui Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai China
| | - Jin Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai China
| | - Weiqiang Lu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology; Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Life Sciences; East China Normal University; Shanghai China
| | - Ying Huang
- Guangdong Institute for Drug Control; Guangzhou Guangdong China
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10
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El Kouni MH. Pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes: A comparison with other parasites and the search for potential chemotherapeutic targets. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 213:55-80. [PMID: 28735972 PMCID: PMC5593796 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomes are responsible for the parasitic disease schistosomiasis, an acute and chronic parasitic ailment that affects >240 million people in 70 countries worldwide. It is the second most devastating parasitic disease after malaria. At least 200,000 deaths per year are associated with the disease. In the absence of the availability of vaccines, chemotherapy is the main stay for combating schistosomiasis. The antischistosomal arsenal is currently limited to a single drug, Praziquantel, which is quite effective with a single-day treatment and virtually no host-toxicity. Recently, however, the question of reduced activity of Praziquantel has been raised. Therefore, the search for alternative antischistosomal drugs merits the study of new approaches of chemotherapy. The rational design of a drug is usually based on biochemical and physiological differences between pathogens and host. Pyrimidine metabolism is an excellent target for such studies. Schistosomes, unlike most of the host tissues, require a very active pyrimidine metabolism for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. This is essential for the production of the enormous numbers of eggs deposited daily by the parasite to which the granulomas response precipitates the pathogenesis of schistosomiasis. Furthermore, there are sufficient differences between corresponding enzymes of pyrimidine metabolism from the host and the parasite that can be exploited to design specific inhibitors or "subversive substrates" for the parasitic enzymes. Specificities of pyrimidine transport also diverge significantly between parasites and their mammalian host. This review deals with studies on pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes and highlights the unique characteristic of this metabolism that could constitute excellent potential targets for the design of safe and effective antischistosomal drugs. In addition, pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes is compared with that in other parasites where studies on pyrimidine metabolism have been more elaborate, in the hope of providing leads on how to identify likely chemotherapeutic targets which have not been looked at in schistosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud H El Kouni
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for AIDS Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center, General Clinical Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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11
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Stage-Specific Changes in Plasmodium Metabolism Required for Differentiation and Adaptation to Different Host and Vector Environments. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1006094. [PMID: 28027318 PMCID: PMC5189940 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) encounter markedly different (nutritional) environments during their complex life cycles in the mosquito and human hosts. Adaptation to these different host niches is associated with a dramatic rewiring of metabolism, from a highly glycolytic metabolism in the asexual blood stages to increased dependence on tricarboxylic acid (TCA) metabolism in mosquito stages. Here we have used stable isotope labelling, targeted metabolomics and reverse genetics to map stage-specific changes in Plasmodium berghei carbon metabolism and determine the functional significance of these changes on parasite survival in the blood and mosquito stages. We show that glutamine serves as the predominant input into TCA metabolism in both asexual and sexual blood stages and is important for complete male gametogenesis. Glutamine catabolism, as well as key reactions in intermediary metabolism and CoA synthesis are also essential for ookinete to oocyst transition in the mosquito. These data extend our knowledge of Plasmodium metabolism and point towards possible targets for transmission-blocking intervention strategies. Furthermore, they highlight significant metabolic differences between Plasmodium species which are not easily anticipated based on genomics or transcriptomics studies and underline the importance of integration of metabolomics data with other platforms in order to better inform drug discovery and design. Malaria kills almost half a million people worldwide every year and more than two hundred million people are diagnosed with this deadly disease annually. It is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium spp., mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia and is transmitted by bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Due to an increase in resistance to existing drugs and lack of an effective vaccine, new intervention strategies which target development of parasite in human host and transmission through the mosquito vector are urgently needed. In this study, we explored the metabolic capacity of different developmental stages of the malaria parasite to determine carbon source utilization in different host niches and whether any stage-specific switches in metabolism could be exploited in new therapies aimed at eradicating malaria. Using stable isotope labelling and metabolomics, we have identified considerable nutritional adaptability of malaria parasites between the mammalian host and the mosquito vector. Gene disruption in the rodent malaria parasite P. berghei was used to identify the metabolic pathways which are crucial to the survival and development of the parasite. Our data also point at key metabolic differences in different Plasmodium species highlighting the importance of integrating metabolomics analyses with molecular tools and identifies possible transmission blocking candidates for malaria intervention.
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Pyrimidine Pathway-Dependent and -Independent Functions of the Toxoplasma gondii Mitochondrial Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase. Infect Immun 2016; 84:2974-81. [PMID: 27481247 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00187-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) mediates the fourth step of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis and is a proven drug target for inducing immunosuppression in therapy of human disease as well as a rapidly emerging drug target for treatment of malaria. In Toxoplasma gondii, disruption of the first, fifth, or sixth step of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis induced uracil auxotrophy. However, previous attempts to generate uracil auxotrophy by genetically deleting the mitochondrion-associated DHODH of T. gondii (TgDHODH) failed. To further address the essentiality of TgDHODH, mutant gene alleles deficient in TgDHODH activity were designed to ablate the enzyme activity. Replacement of the endogenous DHODH gene with catalytically deficient DHODH gene alleles induced uracil auxotrophy. Catalytically deficient TgDHODH localized to the mitochondria, and parasites retained mitochondrial membrane potential. These results show that TgDHODH is essential for the synthesis of pyrimidines and suggest that TgDHODH is required for a second essential function independent of its role in pyrimidine biosynthesis.
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Caballero I, Lafuente MJ, Gamo FJ, Cid C. A high-throughput fluorescence-based assay for Plasmodium dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitor screening. Anal Biochem 2016; 506:13-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2016.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Krungkrai SR, Krungkrai J. Insights into the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway of human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum as chemotherapeutic target. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:525-34. [PMID: 27262062 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans. Artemisinins remain as the first-line treatment for Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) malaria although drug resistance has already emerged and spread in Southeast Asia. Thus, to fight this disease, there is an urgent need to develop new antimalarial drugs for malaria chemotherapy. Unlike human host cells, P. falciparum cannot salvage preformed pyrimidine bases or nucleosides from the extracellular environment and relies solely on nucleotides synthesized through the de novo biosynthetic pathway. This review presents significant progress on understanding the de novo pyrimidine pathway and the functional enzymes in the human parasite P. falciparum. Current knowledge in genomics and metabolomics are described, particularly focusing on the parasite purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism. These include gene annotation, characterization and molecular mechanism of the enzymes that are different from the human host pathway. Recent elucidation of the three-dimensional crystal structures and the catalytic reactions of three enzymes: dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, orotate phosphoribosyltransferase, and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase, as well as their inhibitors are reviewed in the context of their therapeutic potential against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudaratana R Krungkrai
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Science, Faculty of Science, Rangsit University, Pathumthani 12000, Thailand
| | - Jerapan Krungkrai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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15
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Pavadai E, El Mazouni F, Wittlin S, de Kock C, Phillips MA, Chibale K. Identification of New Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase Inhibitors by Pharmacophore and Structure-Based Virtual Screening. J Chem Inf Model 2016; 56:548-62. [PMID: 26915022 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.5b00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH), a key enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway, which the Plasmodium falciparum relies on exclusively for survival, has emerged as a promising target for antimalarial drugs. In an effort to discover new and potent PfDHODH inhibitors, 3D-QSAR pharmacophore models were developed based on the structures of known PfDHODH inhibitors and the validated Hypo1 model was used as a 3D search query for virtual screening of the National Cancer Institute database. The virtual hit compounds were further filtered based on molecular docking and Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born Surface Area binding energy calculations. The combination of the pharmacophore and structure-based virtual screening resulted in the identification of nine new compounds that showed >25% inhibition of PfDHODH at a concentration of 10 μM, three of which exhibited IC50 values in the range of 0.38-20 μM. The most active compound, NSC336047, displayed species-selectivity for PfDHODH over human DHODH and inhibited parasite growth with an IC50 of 26 μM. In addition to this, 13 compounds inhibited parasite growth with IC50 values of ≤ 50 μM, 4 of which showed IC50 values in the range of 5-12 μM. These compounds could be further explored in the identification and development of more potent PfDHODH and parasite growth inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Farah El Mazouni
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas , 6001 Forest Park Blvd, Dallas, Texas 75390-9041, United States
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute , Socinstrasse 57, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel , 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carmen de Kock
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town , Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | - Margaret A Phillips
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas , 6001 Forest Park Blvd, Dallas, Texas 75390-9041, United States
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Song W, Li S, Tong Y, Wang J, Quan L, Chen Z, Zhao Z, Xu Y, Zhu L, Qian X, Li H. Structure-based design of potent human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitors as anticancer agents. MEDCHEMCOMM 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6md00179c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of hydrazino-thiazole derivatives were synthesized, of which compound 22 was the most potent inhibitor of hDHODH (IC50 = 1.8 nM). Furthermore, 22 exhibited better antiproliferative activity than brequinar in cancer cell lines.
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Malaria parasite carbonic anhydrase: inhibition of aromatic/heterocyclic sulfonamides and its therapeutic potential. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 1:233-42. [PMID: 23569766 DOI: 10.1016/s2221-1691(11)60034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Revised: 02/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) is responsible for the majority of life-threatening cases of human malaria, causing 1.5-2.7 million annual deaths. The global emergence of drug-resistant malaria parasites necessitates identification and characterization of novel drug targets and their potential inhibitors. We identified the carbonic anhydrase (CA) genes in P. falciparum. The pfCA gene encodes anα-carbonic anhydrase, a Zn(2+)-metalloenzme, possessing catalytic properties distinct from that of the human host CA enzyme. The amino acid sequence of the pfCA enzyme is different from the analogous protozoan and human enzymes. A library of aromatic/heterocyclic sulfonamides possessing a large diversity of scaffolds were found to be very good inhibitors for the malarial enzyme at moderate-low micromolar and submicromolar inhibitions. The structure of the groups substituting the aromatic-ureido- or aromatic-azomethine fragment of the molecule and the length of the parent sulfonamide were critical parameters for the inhibitory properties of the sulfonamides. One derivative, that is, 4- (3, 4-dichlorophenylureido)thioureido-benzenesulfonamide (compound 10) was the most effective in vitro Plasmodium falciparum CA inhibitor, and was also the most effective antimalarial compound on the in vitro P. falciparum growth inhibition. The compound 10 was also effective in vivo antimalarial agent in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei, an animal model of drug testing for human malaria infection. It is therefore concluded that the sulphonamide inhibitors targeting the parasite CA may have potential for the development of novel therapies against human malaria.
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Zhu J, Han L, Diao Y, Ren X, Xu M, Xu L, Li S, Li Q, Dong D, Huang J, Liu X, Zhao Z, Wang R, Zhu L, Xu Y, Qian X, Li H. Design, Synthesis, X-ray Crystallographic Analysis, and Biological Evaluation of Thiazole Derivatives as Potent and Selective Inhibitors of Human Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase. J Med Chem 2015; 58:1123-39. [DOI: 10.1021/jm501127s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Junsheng Zhu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Le Han
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yanyan Diao
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaoli Ren
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Minghao Xu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Liuxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Shiliang Li
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Qiang Li
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Dong Dong
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jin Huang
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaofeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Zhenjiang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Rui Wang
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Lili Zhu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yufang Xu
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xuhong Qian
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Honglin Li
- State Key Laboratory
of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory
of New Drug Design, and ‡Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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Imprasittichail W, Roytrakul S, Krungkrai SR, Krungkrail J. A unique insertion of low complexity amino acid sequence underlies protein-protein interaction in human malaria parasite orotate phosphoribosyltransferase and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2014; 7:184-92. [PMID: 24507637 DOI: 10.1016/s1995-7645(14)60018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2013] [Revised: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the multienzyme complex formation of human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (OPRT) and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (OMPDC), the fifth and sixth enzyme of the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway. Previously, we have clearly established that the two enzymes in the malaria parasite exist physically as a heterotetrameric (OPRT)2(OMPDC)2 complex containing two subunits each of OPRT and OMPDC, and that the complex have catalytic kinetic advantages over the monofunctional enzyme. METHODS Both enzymes were cloned and expressed as recombinant proteins. The protein-protein interaction in the enzyme complex was identified using bifunctional chemical cross-linker, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis and homology modeling. RESULTS The unique insertions of low complexity region at the α 2 and α 5 helices of the parasite OMPDC, characterized by single amino acid repeat sequence which was not found in homologous proteins from other organisms, was located on the OPRT-OMPDC interface. The structural models for the protein-protein interaction of the heterotetrameric (OPRT)2(OMPDC)2 multienzyme complex were proposed. CONCLUSIONS Based on the proteomic data and structural modeling, it is surmised that the human malaria parasite low complexity region is responsible for the OPRT-OMPDC interaction. The structural complex of the parasite enzymes, thus, represents an efficient functional kinetic advantage, which in line with co-localization principles of evolutional origin, and allosteric control in protein-protein-interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waranya Imprasittichail
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sittiruk Roytrakul
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Sudaratana R Krungkrai
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Science, Faculty of Science, Rangsit University, Pathumthani 12000, Thailand
| | - Jerapan Krungkrail
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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Sáenz FE, LaCrue AN, Cross RM, Maignan JR, Udenze KO, Manetsch R, Kyle DE. 4-(1H)-Quinolones and 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroacridin-9(10H)-ones prevent the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum to Anopheles freeborni. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:6187-95. [PMID: 24080648 PMCID: PMC3837905 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00492-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria kills approximately 1 million people a year, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Essential steps in the life cycle of the parasite are the development of gametocytes, as well as the formation of oocysts and sporozoites, in the Anopheles mosquito vector. Preventing transmission of malaria through the mosquito is necessary for the control of the disease; nevertheless, the vast majority of drugs in use act primarily against the blood stages. The study described herein focuses on the assessment of the transmission-blocking activities of potent antierythrocytic stage agents derived from the 4(1H)-quinolone scaffold. In particular, three 3-alkyl- or 3-phenyl-4(1H)-quinolones (P4Qs), one 7-(2-phenoxyethoxy)-4(1H)-quinolone (PEQ), and one 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroacridin-9(10H)-one (THA) were assessed for their transmission-blocking activity against the mosquito stages of the human malaria parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) and the rodent parasite (P. berghei). Results showed that all of the experimental compounds reduced or prevented the exflagellation of male gametocytes and, more importantly, prevented parasite transmission to the mosquito vector. Additionally, treatment with ICI 56,780 reduced the number of sporozoites that reached the Anopheles salivary glands. These findings suggest that 4(1H)-quinolones, which have activity against the blood stages, can also prevent the transmission of Plasmodium to the mosquito and, hence, are potentially important drug candidates to eradicate malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabián E. Sáenz
- Department of Global Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Alexis N. LaCrue
- Department of Global Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - R. Matthew Cross
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jordany R. Maignan
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Kenneth O. Udenze
- Department of Global Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Roman Manetsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Dennis E. Kyle
- Department of Global Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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Munier-Lehmann H, Vidalain PO, Tangy F, Janin YL. On dihydroorotate dehydrogenases and their inhibitors and uses. J Med Chem 2013; 56:3148-67. [PMID: 23452331 DOI: 10.1021/jm301848w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Proper nucleosides availability is crucial for the proliferation of living entities (eukaryotic cells, parasites, bacteria, and virus). Accordingly, the uses of inhibitors of the de novo nucleosides biosynthetic pathways have been investigated in the past. In the following we have focused on dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), the fourth enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine nucleosides biosynthetic pathway. We first described the different types of enzyme in terms of sequence, structure, and biochemistry, including the reported bioassays. In a second part, the series of inhibitors of this enzyme along with a description of their potential or actual uses were reviewed. These inhibitors are indeed used in medicine to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or multiple sclerosis (leflunomide and teriflunomide) and have been investigated in treatments of cancer, virus, and parasite infections (i.e., malaria) as well as in crop science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Munier-Lehmann
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Chimie et Biocatalyse, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, 28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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22
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The antimalarial activities of methylene blue and the 1,4-naphthoquinone 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione are not due to inhibition of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:2114-20. [PMID: 23439633 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02248-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylene blue and a series of recently developed 1,4-naphthoquinones, including 3-[4-(substituted)benzyl]-menadiones, are potent antimalarial agents in vitro and in vivo. The activity of these structurally diverse compounds against the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum might involve their peculiar redox properties. According to the current theory, redox-active methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione are "subversive substrates." These agents are thought to shuttle electrons from reduced flavoproteins to acceptors such as hemoglobin-associated or free Fe(III)-protoporphyrin IX. The reduction of Fe(III)-protoporphyrin IX could subsequently prevent essential hemoglobin digestion and heme detoxification in the parasite. Alternatively, owing to their structures and redox properties, methylene blue and 1,4-naphthoquinones might also affect the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Here, we tested the latter hypothesis using an established system of transgenic P. falciparum cell lines and the antimalarial agents atovaquone and chloroquine as controls. In contrast to atovaquone, methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione do not inhibit the mitochondrial electron transport chain. A systematic comparison of the morphologies of drug-treated parasites furthermore suggests that the three drugs do not share a mechanism of action. Our findings support the idea that methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione exert their antimalarial activity as redox-active subversive substrates.
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23
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Calderón F, Wilson DM, Gamo FJ. Antimalarial drug discovery: recent progress and future directions. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013; 52:97-151. [PMID: 23384667 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-62652-3.00003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Calderón
- Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, Diseases of the Developing World, GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Spain
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24
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Deponte M, Hoppe HC, Lee MC, Maier AG, Richard D, Rug M, Spielmann T, Przyborski JM. Wherever I may roam: Protein and membrane trafficking in P. falciparum-infected red blood cells. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2012; 186:95-116. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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25
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Butterfield ER, Howe CJ, Nisbet RER. An analysis of dinoflagellate metabolism using EST data. Protist 2012; 164:218-36. [PMID: 23085481 DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellates are an important group of eukaryotic, single celled algae. They are the sister group of the Apicomplexa, a group of intracellular parasites and photosynthetic algae including the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Many apicomplexan mitochondria have a number of unusual features, including the lack of a pyruvate dehydrogenase and the existence of a branched TCA cycle. Here, we analyse dinoflagellate EST (expressed sequence tag) data to determine whether these features are apicomplexan-specific, or if they are more widespread. We show that dinoflagellates have replaced a key subunit (E1) of pyruvate dehydrogenase with a subunit of bacterial origin and that transcripts encoding many of the proteins that are essential in a conventional ATP synthase/Complex V are absent, as is the case in Apicomplexa. There is a pathway for synthesis of starch or glycogen as a storage carbohydrate. Transcripts encoding isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are present, consistent with ultrastructural reports of a glyoxysome. Finally, evidence for a conventional haem biosynthesis pathway is found, in contrast to the Apicomplexa, Chromera and early branching dinoflagellates (Perkinsus, Oxyrrhis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin R Butterfield
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
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26
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Alam A, Goyal M, Iqbal MS, Pal C, Dey S, Bindu S, Maity P, Bandyopadhyay U. Novel antimalarial drug targets: hope for new antimalarial drugs. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2012; 2:469-89. [PMID: 22112223 DOI: 10.1586/ecp.09.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a major global threat, that results in more than 2 million deaths each year. The treatment of malaria is becoming extremely difficult due to the emergence of drug-resistant parasites, the absence of an effective vaccine, and the spread of insecticide-resistant vectors. Thus, malarial therapy needs new chemotherapeutic approaches leading to the search for new drug targets. Here, we discuss different approaches to identifying novel antimalarial drug targets. We have also given due attention to the existing validated targets with a view to develop novel, rationally designed lead molecules. Some of the important parasite proteins are claimed to be the targets; however, further in vitro or in vivo structure-function studies of such proteins are crucial to validate these proteins as suitable targets. The interactome analysis among apicoplast, mitochondrion and genomic DNA will also be useful in identifying vital pathways or proteins regulating critical pathways for parasite growth and survival, and could be attractive targets. Molecules responsible for parasite invasion to host erythrocytes and ion channels of infected erythrocytes, essential for intra-erythrocyte survival and stage progression of parasites are also becoming attractive targets. This review will discuss and highlight the current understanding regarding the potential antimalarial drug targets, which could be utilized to develop novel antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athar Alam
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, West Bengal, India.
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27
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Feagin JE, Harrell MI, Lee JC, Coe KJ, Sands BH, Cannone JJ, Tami G, Schnare MN, Gutell RR. The fragmented mitochondrial ribosomal RNAs of Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38320. [PMID: 22761677 PMCID: PMC3382252 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mitochondrial genome in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is most unusual. Over half the genome is composed of the genes for three classic mitochondrial proteins: cytochrome oxidase subunits I and III and apocytochrome b. The remainder encodes numerous small RNAs, ranging in size from 23 to 190 nt. Previous analysis revealed that some of these transcripts have significant sequence identity with highly conserved regions of large and small subunit rRNAs, and can form the expected secondary structures. However, these rRNA fragments are not encoded in linear order; instead, they are intermixed with one another and the protein coding genes, and are coded on both strands of the genome. This unorthodox arrangement hindered the identification of transcripts corresponding to other regions of rRNA that are highly conserved and/or are known to participate directly in protein synthesis. Principal Findings The identification of 14 additional small mitochondrial transcripts from P. falcipaurm and the assignment of 27 small RNAs (12 SSU RNAs totaling 804 nt, 15 LSU RNAs totaling 1233 nt) to specific regions of rRNA are supported by multiple lines of evidence. The regions now represented are highly similar to those of the small but contiguous mitochondrial rRNAs of Caenorhabditis elegans. The P. falciparum rRNA fragments cluster on the interfaces of the two ribosomal subunits in the three-dimensional structure of the ribosome. Significance All of the rRNA fragments are now presumed to have been identified with experimental methods, and nearly all of these have been mapped onto the SSU and LSU rRNAs. Conversely, all regions of the rRNAs that are known to be directly associated with protein synthesis have been identified in the P. falciparum mitochondrial genome and RNA transcripts. The fragmentation of the rRNA in the P. falciparum mitochondrion is the most extreme example of any rRNA fragmentation discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean E Feagin
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
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28
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Toward understanding the role of mitochondrial complex II in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum: gene targeting of the Fp subunit. Parasitol Int 2012; 61:726-8. [PMID: 22698672 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites in human hosts depend on glycolysis for most of their energy production, and the mitochondrion of the intraerythrocytic form is acristate. Although the genes for all tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle members are found in the parasite genome, the presence of a functional TCA cycle in the intraerythrocytic stage is still controversial. To elucidate the physiological role of Plasmodium falciparum mitochondrial complex II (succinate-ubiquinone reductase (SQR) or succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)) in the TCA cycle, the gene for the flavoprotein subunit (Fp) of the enzyme, pfsdha (P.falciparum gene for SDH subunit A, PlasmoDB ID: PF3D7_1034400) was disrupted. SDH is a well-known marker enzyme for mitochondria. In the pfsdha disruptants, Fp mRNA and polypeptides were decreased, and neither SQR nor SDH activity of complex II was detected. The suppression of complex II caused growth retardation of the intraerythrocytic forms, suggesting that complex II contributes to intraerythrocytic parasite growth, although it is not essential for survival. The growth retardation in the pfsdha disruptant was rescued by the addition of succinate, but not by fumarate. This indicates that complex II functions as a quinol-fumarate reductase (QFR) to form succinate from fumarate in the intraerythrocytic parasite.
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Bulusu V, Jayaraman V, Balaram H. Metabolic fate of fumarate, a side product of the purine salvage pathway in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:9236-45. [PMID: 21209090 PMCID: PMC3059058 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.173328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2010] [Revised: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In aerobic respiration, the tricarboxylic acid cycle is pivotal to the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids to carbon dioxide and water. Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of human malaria, lacks a conventional tricarboxylic acid cycle and depends exclusively on glycolysis for ATP production. However, all of the constituent enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle are annotated in the genome of P. falciparum, which implies that the pathway might have important, yet unidentified biosynthetic functions. Here we show that fumarate, a side product of the purine salvage pathway and a metabolic intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, is not a metabolic waste but is converted to aspartate through malate and oxaloacetate. P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes and free parasites incorporated [2,3-(14)C]fumarate into the nucleic acid and protein fractions. (13)C NMR of parasites incubated with [2,3-(13)C]fumarate showed the formation of malate, pyruvate, lactate, and aspartate but not citrate or succinate. Further, treatment of free parasites with atovaquone inhibited the conversion of fumarate to aspartate, thereby indicating this pathway as an electron transport chain-dependent process. This study, therefore, provides a biosynthetic function for fumarate hydratase, malate quinone oxidoreductase, and aspartate aminotransferase of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Bulusu
- From the Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India
| | - Vijay Jayaraman
- From the Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India
| | - Hemalatha Balaram
- From the Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India
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Torrentino-Madamet M, Alméras L, Desplans J, Le Priol Y, Belghazi M, Pophillat M, Fourquet P, Jammes Y, Parzy D. Global response of Plasmodium falciparum to hyperoxia: a combined transcriptomic and proteomic approach. Malar J 2011; 10:4. [PMID: 21223545 PMCID: PMC3030542 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Over its life cycle, the Plasmodium falciparum parasite is exposed to different environmental conditions, particularly to variations in O2 pressure. For example, the parasite circulates in human venous blood at 5% O2 pressure and in arterial blood, particularly in the lungs, at 13% O2 pressure. Moreover, the parasite is exposed to 21% O2 levels in the salivary glands of mosquitoes. Methods To study the metabolic adaptation of P. falciparum to different oxygen pressures during the intraerythrocytic cycle, a combined approach using transcriptomic and proteomic techniques was undertaken. Results Even though hyperoxia lengthens the parasitic cycle, significant transcriptional changes were detected in hyperoxic conditions in the late-ring stage. Using PS 6.0™ software (Ariadne Genomics) for microarray analysis, this study demonstrate up-expression of genes involved in antioxidant systems and down-expression of genes involved in the digestive vacuole metabolism and the glycolysis in favour of mitochondrial respiration. Proteomic analysis revealed increased levels of heat shock proteins, and decreased levels of glycolytic enzymes. Some of this regulation reflected post-transcriptional modifications during the hyperoxia response. Conclusions These results seem to indicate that hyperoxia activates antioxidant defence systems in parasites to preserve the integrity of its cellular structures. Moreover, environmental constraints seem to induce an energetic metabolism adaptation of P. falciparum. This study provides a better understanding of the adaptive capabilities of P. falciparum to environmental changes and may lead to the development of novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marylin Torrentino-Madamet
- UMR-MD3 (Université de la Méditerranée), Antenne IRBA de Marseille (IMTSSA, Le Pharo), Allée du Médecin Colonel Eugène Jamot, BP 60109, 13262 Marseille cedex 07, France.
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31
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Zhang Y, Schramm VL. Pyrophosphate interactions at the transition states of Plasmodium falciparum and human orotate phosphoribosyltransferases. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:8787-94. [PMID: 20527751 DOI: 10.1021/ja102849w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Orotate phosphoribosyltransferases from Plasmodium falciparum and human sources (PfOPRT and HsOPRT) use orotidine as a slow substrate in the pyrophosphorolysis reaction. With orotidine, intrinsic kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) can be measured for pyrophosphorolysis, providing the first use of pyrophosphate (PPi) in solving an enzymatic transition state. Transition-state structures of PfOPRT and HsOPRT were solved through quantum chemical matching of computed and experimental intrinsic KIEs and can be compared to transition states solved with pyrophosphate analogues as slow substrates. PfOPRT and HsOPRT are characterized by late transition states with fully dissociated orotate, well-developed ribocations, and weakly bonded PPi nucleophiles. The leaving orotates are 2.8 A distant from the anomeric carbons at the transition states. Weak participation of the PPi nucleophiles gives C1'-O(PPi) bond distances of approximately 2.3 A. These transition states are characterized by C2'-endo ribosyl pucker, based on the beta-secondary [2'-(3)H] KIEs. The geometry at the 5'-region is similar for both enzymes, with C3'-C4'-C5'-O5' dihedral angles near -170 degrees . These novel phosphoribosyltransferase transition states are similar to but occur earlier in the reaction coordinate than those previously determined with orotidine 5'-monophosphate and phosphonoacetic acid as substrates. The similarity between the transition states with different substrate analogues supports similar transition state structures imposed by PfOPRT and HsOPRT even with distinct reactants. We propose that the transition state similarity with different nucleophiles is determined, in part, by the geometric constraints imposed by the catalytic sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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Grellier P, Marozienė A, Nivinskas H, Šarlauskas J, Aliverti A, Čėnas N. Antiplasmodial activity of quinones: Roles of aziridinyl substituents and the inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum glutathione reductase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2010; 494:32-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Revised: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Particularities of mitochondrial structure in parasitic protists (Apicomplexa and Kinetoplastida). Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2009; 41:2069-80. [PMID: 19379828 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2009.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Revised: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Without mitochondria, eukaryotic cells would depend entirely on anaerobic glycolysis for ATP generation. This also holds true for protists, both free-living and parasitic. Parasitic protists include agents of human and animal diseases that have a huge impact on world populations. In the phylum Apicomplexa, several species of Plasmodium cause malaria, whereas Toxoplasma gondii is a cosmopolite parasite found on all continents. Flagellates of the order Kinetoplastida include the genera Leishmania and Trypanosoma causative agents of human leishmaniasis and (depending on the species) African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease. Although clearly distinct in many aspects, the members of these two groups bear a single and usually well developed mitochondrion. The single mitochondrion of Apicomplexa has a dense matrix and many cristae with a circular profile. The organelle is even more peculiar in the order Kinetoplastida, exhibiting a condensed network of DNA at a specific position, always close to the flagellar basal body. This arrangement is known as Kinetoplast and the name of the order derived from it. Kinetoplastids also bear glycosomes, peroxisomes that concentrate enzymes of the glycolytic cycle. Mitochondrial volume and activity is maximum when glycosomal is low and vice versa. In both Apicomplexa and trypanosomatids, mitochondria show particularities that are absent in other eukaryotic organisms. These peculiar features make them an attractive target for therapeutic drugs for the diseases they cause.
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Zhang Y, Luo M, Schramm VL. Transition states of Plasmodium falciparum and human orotate phosphoribosyltransferases. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:4685-94. [PMID: 19292447 PMCID: PMC2669657 DOI: 10.1021/ja808346y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Orotate phosphoribosyltransferases (OPRT) catalyze the formation of orotidine 5'-monophosphate (OMP) from alpha-D-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate (PRPP) and orotate, an essential step in the de novo biosynthesis of pyrimidines. Pyrimidine de novo biosynthesis is required in Plasmodium falciparum , and thus OPRT of the parasite (PfOPRT) is a target for antimalarial drugs. De novo biosynthesis of pyrimidines is also a feature of rapidly proliferating cancer cells. Human OPRT (HsOPRT) is therefore a target for neoplastic and autoimmune diseases. One approach to the inhibition of OPRTs is through analogues that mimic the transition states of PfOPRT and HsOPRT. The transition state structures of these OPRTs were analyzed by kinetic isotope effects (KIEs), substrate specificity, and computational chemistry. With phosphonoacetic acid (PA), an analogue of pyrophosphate, the intrinsic KIEs of [1'-(14)C], [1, 3-(15)N(2)], [3-(15)N], [1'-(3)H], [2'-(3)H], [4'-(3)H], and [5'-(3)H(2)] are 1.034, 1.028, 0.997, 1.261, 1.116, 0.974, and 1.013 for PfOPRT and 1.035, 1.025, 0.993, 1.199, 1.129, 0.962, and 1.019 for HsOPRT, respectively. Transition state structures of PfOPRT and HsOPRT were determined computationally by matching the calculated and intrinsic KIEs. The enzymes form late associative D(N)*A(N)(double dagger) transition states with complete orotate loss and partially associative nucleophile. The C1'-O(PA) distances are approximately 2.1 A at these transition states. The modest [1'-(14)C] KIEs and large [1'-(3)H] KIEs are characteristic of D(N)*A(N)(double dagger) transition states. The large [2'-(3)H] KIEs indicate a ribosyl 2'-C-endo conformation at the transition states. p-Nitrophenyl beta-D-ribose 5'-phosphate is a poor substrate of PfOPRT and HsOPRT but is a nanomolar inhibitor, supporting a reaction coordinate with strong leaving group activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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Davies M, Heikkilä T, McConkey GA, Fishwick CWG, Parsons MR, Johnson AP. Structure-Based Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Inhibitors of Human and Plasmodium falciparum Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenases. J Med Chem 2009; 52:2683-93. [DOI: 10.1021/jm800963t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Davies
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Timo Heikkilä
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Glenn A. McConkey
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Colin W. G. Fishwick
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Mark R. Parsons
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - A. Peter Johnson
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
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Krungkrai J, Krungkrai SR, Supuran CT. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum carbonic anhydrase with aromatic/heterocyclic sulfonamides—in vitro and in vivo studies. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2008; 18:5466-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2008] [Revised: 09/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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37
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Dihydroorotase of human malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum differs from host enzyme. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 366:821-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2007] [Accepted: 12/05/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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38
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Sherman IW. References. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)00430-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Malmquist NA, Baldwin J, Phillips MA. Detergent-dependent kinetics of truncated Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:12678-86. [PMID: 17329250 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m609893200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The survival of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is dependent upon the de novo biosynthesis of pyrimidines. P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH) catalyzes the fourth step in this pathway in an FMN-dependent reaction. The full-length enzyme is associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane, where ubiquinone (CoQ) serves as the terminal electron acceptor. The lipophilic nature of the co-substrate suggests that electron transfer to CoQ occurs at the two-dimensional lipid-solution interface. Here we show that PfDHODH associates with liposomes even in the absence of the N-terminal transmembrane-spanning domain. The association of a series of ubiquinone substrates with detergent micelles was studied by isothermal titration calorimetry, and the data reveal that CoQ analogs with long decyl (CoQ(D)) or geranyl (CoQ(2)) tails partition into detergent micelles, whereas that with a short prenyl tail (CoQ(1)) remains in solution. PfDHODH-catalyzed reduction of CoQ(D) and CoQ(2), but not CoQ(1), is stimulated as detergent concentrations (Tween 80 or Triton X-100) are increased up to their critical micelle concentrations, beyond which activity declines. Steady-state kinetic data acquired for the reaction with CoQ(D) and CoQ(2) in substrate-detergent mixed micelles fit well to a surface dilution kinetic model. In contrast, the data for CoQ(1) as a substrate were well described by solution steady-state kinetics. Our results suggest that the partitioning of lipophilic ubiquinone analogues into detergent micelles needs to be an important consideration in the kinetic analysis of enzymes that utilize these substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Malmquist
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9041, USA
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Abstract
Synthesis de novo, acquisition by salvage and interconversion of purines and pyrimidines represent the fundamental requirements for their eventual assembly into nucleic acids as nucleotides and the deployment of their derivatives in other biochemical pathways. A small number of drugs targeted to nucleotide metabolism, by virtue of their effect on folate biosynthesis and recycling, have been successfully used against apicomplexan parasites such as Plasmodium and Toxoplasma for many years, although resistance is now a major problem in the prevention and treatment of malaria. Many targets not involving folate metabolism have also been explored at the experimental level. However, the unravelling of the genome sequences of these eukaryotic unicellular organisms, together with increasingly sophisticated molecular analyses, opens up possibilities of introducing new drugs that could interfere with these processes. This review examines the status of established drugs of this type and the potential for further exploiting the vulnerability of apicomplexan human pathogens to inhibition of this key area of metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Hyde
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7ND, UK.
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41
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Kobayashi T, Sato S, Takamiya S, Komaki-Yasuda K, Yano K, Hirata A, Onitsuka I, Hata M, Mi-ichi F, Tanaka T, Hase T, Miyajima A, Kawazu SI, Watanabe YI, Kita K. Mitochondria and apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum: behaviour on subcellular fractionation and the implication. Mitochondrion 2006; 7:125-32. [PMID: 17289446 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2006.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/21/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The mitochondrion and the apicoplast of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium spp. is microscopically observed in a close proximity to each other. In this study, we tested the suitability of two different separation techniques--Percoll density gradient centrifugation and fluorescence-activated organelle sorting--for improving the purity of mitochondria isolated from the crude organelle preparation of Plasmodium falciparum. To our surprise, the apicoplast was inseparable from the plasmodial mitochondrion by each method. This implies these two plasmodial organelles are bound each other. This is the first experimental evidence of a physical binding between the two organelles in Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamaki Kobayashi
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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van Dooren GG, Stimmler LM, McFadden GI. Metabolic maps and functions of the Plasmodium mitochondrion. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2006; 30:596-630. [PMID: 16774588 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2006.00027.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrion of Plasmodium species is a validated drug target. However, very little is known about the functions of this organelle. In this review, we utilize data available from the Plasmodium falciparum genome sequencing project to piece together putative metabolic pathways that occur in the parasite, comparing this with the existing biochemical and cell biological knowledge. The Plasmodium mitochondrion contains both conserved and unusual features, including an active electron transport chain and many of the necessary enzymes for coenzyme Q and iron-sulphur cluster biosynthesis. It also plays an important role in pyrimidine metabolism. The mitochondrion participates in an unusual hybrid haem biosynthesis pathway, with enzymes localizing in both the mitochondrion and plastid organelles. The function of the tricarboxylic acid cycle in the mitochondrion is unclear. We discuss directions for future research into this fascinating, yet enigmatic, organelle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giel G van Dooren
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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43
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Biagini GA, Viriyavejakul P, O'neill PM, Bray PG, Ward SA. Functional characterization and target validation of alternative complex I of Plasmodium falciparum mitochondria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50:1841-51. [PMID: 16641458 PMCID: PMC1472221 DOI: 10.1128/aac.50.5.1841-1851.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2006] [Accepted: 02/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study reports on the first characterization of the alternative NADH:dehydrogenase (also known as alternative complex I or type II NADH:dehydrogenase) of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, known as PfNDH2. PfNDH2 was shown to actively oxidize NADH in the presence of quinone electron acceptors CoQ(1) and decylubiquinone with an apparent K(m) for NADH of approximately 17 and 5 muM, respectively. The inhibitory profile of PfNDH2 revealed that the enzyme activity was insensitive to rotenone, consistent with recent genomic data indicating the absence of the canonical NADH:dehydrogenase enzyme. PfNDH2 activity was sensitive to diphenylene iodonium chloride and diphenyl iodonium chloride, known inhibitors of alternative NADH:dehydrogenases. Spatiotemporal confocal imaging of parasite mitochondria revealed that loss of PfNDH2 function provoked a collapse of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Psi(m)), leading to parasite death. As with other alternative NADH:dehydrogenases, PfNDH2 lacks transmembrane domains in its protein structure, and therefore, it is proposed that this enzyme is not directly involved in mitochondrial transmembrane proton pumping. Rather, the enzyme provides reducing equivalents for downstream proton-pumping enzyme complexes. As inhibition of PfNDH2 leads to a depolarization of mitochondrial Psi(m), this enzyme is likely to be a critical component of the electron transport chain (ETC). This notion is further supported by proof-of-concept experiments revealing that targeting the ETC's Q-cycle by inhibition of both PfNDH2 and the bc(1) complex is highly synergistic. The potential of targeting PfNDH2 as a chemotherapeutic strategy for drug development is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giancarlo A Biagini
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L35QA, United Kingdom.
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Toler S. The plasmodial apicoplast was retained under evolutionary selective pressure to assuage blood stage oxidative stress. Med Hypotheses 2006; 65:683-90. [PMID: 15996831 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2005] [Accepted: 05/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, the clinical disease resulting from infection with Plasmodium, has haunted mankind with illness and death for thousands of years. As Plasmodia's ancient ancestor evolved from a mixotroph to an intracellular parasite, subsiding on amino acids obtained from hemoglobin, it encountered increased oxidative stress. To compensate for this oxidative stress, Plasmodia reduced its own production of reactive oxygen species by becoming largely fermentative and adapted novel methods to assuage oxidative injury. One such method appears to have been accomplished through the acquisition, retention and exploitation of an ancient red algal endosymbiote, now denoted the apicoplast. The apicoplast, located in close proximity to mitochondria, appears to synthesize the potent antioxidant lipoic acid. Lipoic acid may be utilized by Plasmodium as an antioxidant, a shuttle for reducing potentials and as a mitochondrial cofactor. Inhibition or alteration of the apicoplast leads to a curious phenomena known as "delayed death", whereby parasites die not in the present generation but in the ensuing one. Apicoplast inhibition may produce lipoic acid "starvation", increasing oxidative stress/mitochondrial injury during the subsequent asexual reproductive cycle. Collectively, data available to date indicate that the apicoplast was retained as an obligate endosymbiote, under evolutionary selective pressure, to assuage oxidative stress and plays a critical role in maintaining parasite viability during the Plasmodial shizont blood stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Toler
- Pfizer Inc, Clinical Pharmacology, 50 Pequot Avenue, B3227, New London, CT 06320, USA.
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45
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Abstract
Our understanding of the Plasmodium mitochondrion and apicoplast has been greatly assisted by the genome sequence project. Sequence data have seeded recent research showing that the apicoplast is the site of several anabolic pathways including fatty acid synthesis. The discovery of an active apicoplast pyruvate dehydrogenase complex implies this enzyme generates the acetyl-CoA needed for fatty acid synthesis. However, the absence of a corresponding mitochondrial complex suggests that energy generation in Plasmodium is considerably different from pathways described in other eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart A Ralph
- Institut Pasteur, Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit (CNRS URA2581) 25, rue du Docteur Roux, F-75724 PARIS CEDEX 15, France.
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46
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Baldwin J, Michnoff CH, Malmquist NA, White J, Roth MG, Rathod PK, Phillips MA. High-throughput screening for potent and selective inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:21847-53. [PMID: 15795226 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501100200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the causative agent of the most serious and fatal malarial infections, and it has developed resistance to commonly employed chemotherapeutics. The de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis enzymes offer potential as targets for drug design, because, unlike the host, the parasite does not have pyrimidine salvage pathways. Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is a flavin-dependent mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes the fourth reaction in this essential pathway. Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is utilized as the oxidant. Potent and species-selective inhibitors of malarial DHODH were identified by high-throughput screening of a chemical library, which contained 220,000 drug-like molecules. These novel inhibitors represent a diverse range of chemical scaffolds, including a series of halogenated phenyl benzamide/naphthamides and urea-based compounds containing napthyl or quinolinyl substituents. Inhibitors in these classes with IC(50) values below 600 nm were purified by high pressure liquid chromatography, characterized by mass spectroscopy, and subjected to kinetic analysis against the parasite and human enzymes. The most active compound is a competitive inhibitor of CoQ with an IC(50) against malarial DHODH of 16 nm, and it is 12,500-fold less active against the human enzyme. Site-directed mutagenesis of residues in the CoQ-binding site significantly reduced inhibitor potency. The structural basis for the species selective enzyme inhibition is explained by the variable amino acid sequence in this binding site, making DHODH a particularly strong candidate for the development of new anti-malarial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Baldwin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9041, USA
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Joët T, Morin C, Fischbarg J, Louw AI, Eckstein-Ludwig U, Woodrow C, Krishna S. Why is the Plasmodium falciparum hexose transporter a promising new drug target? Expert Opin Ther Targets 2005; 7:593-602. [PMID: 14498822 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.7.5.593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Chemotherapy of malaria parasites is limited by established drug resistance and lack of novel treatment options. Intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of severe malaria, are wholly dependent upon host glucose for energy. A facilitative hexose transporter (PfHT), encoded by a single-copy gene, mediates glucose uptake and is therefore an attractive potential target. The authors first established heterologous expression in Xenopus laevis to allow functional characterisation of PfHT. They then used this expression system to compare the interaction of substrates with PfHT and mammalian Gluts (hexose transporters) and identified important differences between host and parasite transporters. Certain Omethyl derivatives of glucose proved to be particularly useful discriminators between mammalian transporters and PfHT. The authors exploited this selectivity and synthesised an O-3 hexose derivative that potently inhibits PfHT expressed in oocytes. This O-3 derivative (compound 3361) also kills cultured P. falciparum with comparable potency. Compound 3361 acts with reasonable specificity against PfHT orthologues encoded by other parasites such as Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium knowlesi. Multiplication of Plasmodium berghei in a mouse model is also significantly impeded by this compound. These findings validate PfHT as a novel target.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Joët
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Infectious Diseases, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 ORE, UK
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48
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Abstract
Mitochondria of the malaria parasitePlasmodium falciparumare morphologically different between the asexual and sexual blood stages (gametocytes). In this paper recent findings of mitochondrial heterogeneity are reviewed based on their ultrastructural characteristics, metabolic activities and the differential expression of their genes in these 2 blood stages of the parasite. The existence of NADH dehydrogenase (complex I), succinate dehydrogenase (complex II), cytochrome c reductase (complex III) and cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) suggests that the biochemically active electron transport system operates in this parasite. There is also an alternative electron transport branch pathway, including an anaerobic function of complex II. One of the functional roles of the mitochondrion in the parasite is the coordination of pyrimidine biosynthesis, the electron transport system and oxygen utilization via dihydroorotate dehydrogenase and coenzyme Q. Complete sets of genes encoding enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the ATP synthase complex are predicted fromP. falciparumgenomics information. Other metabolic roles of this organelle include membrane potential maintenance, haem and coenzyme Q biosynthesis, and oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, the mitochondrion may be a chemotherapeutic target for antimalarial drug development. The antimalarial drug atovaquone targets the mitochondrion.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Krungkrai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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49
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Zameitat E, Knecht W, Piskur J, Löffler M. Two different dihydroorotate dehydrogenases from yeast Saccharomyces kluyveri. FEBS Lett 2004; 568:129-34. [PMID: 15196933 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2004.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2004] [Revised: 04/30/2004] [Accepted: 05/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Genes for two structurally and functionally different dihydroorotate dehydrogenases (DHODHs, EC 1.3.99.11), catalyzing the fourth step of pyrimidine biosynthesis, have been previously found in yeast Saccharomyces kluyveri. One is closely related to the Schizosaccharomyces pombe mitochondrial family 2 enzymes, which use quinones as direct and oxygen as the final electron acceptor. The other one resembles the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cytosolic family 1A fumarate-utilizing DHODH. The DHODHs from S. kluyveri, Sch. pombe and S. cerevisiae, were expressed in Escherichia coli and compared for their biochemical properties and interaction with inhibitors. Benzoates as pyrimidine ring analogs were shown to be selective inhibitors of cytosolic DHODs. This unique property of Saccharomyces DHODHs could appoint DHODH as a species-specific target for novel anti-fungal therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Zameitat
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University, Karl-von-Frisch-Strasse 1, D-35033 Marburg, Germany.
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50
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Krungkrai SR, Aoki S, Palacpac NMQ, Sato D, Mitamura T, Krungkrai J, Horii T. Human malaria parasite orotate phosphoribosyltransferase: functional expression, characterization of kinetic reaction mechanism and inhibition profile. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2004; 134:245-55. [PMID: 15003844 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2003.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2003] [Revised: 11/04/2003] [Accepted: 12/19/2003] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the most lethal form of human malaria, relies on de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. A gene encoding orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (OPRT), the fifth enzyme of the de novo pathway catalyzing formation of orotidine 5'-monophosphate (OMP) and pyrophosphate (PP(i)) from 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) and orotate, was identified from P. falciparum (pfOPRT). The deduced amino acid sequence for pfOPRT was compared with OPRTs from other organisms and found to be most similar to that of Escherichia coli. The catalytic residues and consensus sequences for substrate binding in the enzyme were conserved among other organisms. The pfOPRT was exceptional in that it contained a unique insertion of 20 amino acids and an amino-terminal extension of 66 amino acids, making the longest amino acid sequence (281 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 33kDa). The cDNA of the pfOPRT gene was cloned, sequenced and functionally expressed in soluble form. The recombinant pfOPRT was purified from the E. coli lysate by two steps, nickel metal-affinity and gel-filtration chromatography. From 1l E. coli culture, 1.2-1.5mg of pure pfOPRT was obtained. SDS-PAGE revealed that the pfOPRT had a molecular mass of 33kDa and analytical gel-filtration chromatography showed that the enzyme activity eluted at approximately 67kDa. Using dimethyl suberimidate to cross-link neighboring subunits of the pfOPRT, it was confirmed that the native enzyme exists in a dimeric form. The steady state kinetics of initial velocity and product inhibition studies indicate that the enzyme pfOPRT follows a random sequential kinetic mechanism. Compounds aimed at the pfOPRT nexus may act against the parasite through at least two mechanisms: by directly inhibiting the enzyme activity, or be processed to an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase. This study provides a working system with which to investigate new antimalarial agents targeted against P. falciparum OPRT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudaratana R Krungkrai
- Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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