1
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Zhu H, Dronamraju V, Xie W, More SS. Sulfur-containing therapeutics in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Med Chem Res 2021; 30:305-352. [PMID: 33613018 PMCID: PMC7889054 DOI: 10.1007/s00044-020-02687-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur is widely existent in natural products and synthetic organic compounds as organosulfur, which are often associated with a multitude of biological activities. OBenzothiazole, in which benzene ring is fused to the 4,5-positions of the thiazolerganosulfur compounds continue to garner increasing amounts of attention in the field of medicinal chemistry, especially in the development of therapeutic agents for Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is a fatal neurodegenerative disease and the primary cause of age-related dementia posing severe societal and economic burdens. Unfortunately, there is no cure for AD. A lot of research has been conducted on sulfur-containing compounds in the context of AD due to their innate antioxidant potential and some are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. In this review, we have described emerging trends in the field, particularly the concept of multi-targeting and formulation of disease-modifying strategies. SAR, pharmacological targets, in vitro/vivo ADMET, efficacy in AD animal models, and applications in clinical trials of such sulfur compounds have also been discussed. This article provides a comprehensive review of organosulfur-based AD therapeutic agents and provides insights into their future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haizhou Zhu
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Venkateshwara Dronamraju
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Wei Xie
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Swati S. More
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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2
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Mei H, Han J, Klika KD, Izawa K, Sato T, Meanwell NA, Soloshonok VA. Applications of fluorine-containing amino acids for drug design. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 186:111826. [PMID: 31740056 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Fluorine-containing amino acids are becoming increasingly prominent in new drugs due to two general trends in the modern pharmaceutical industry. Firstly, the growing acceptance of peptides and modified peptides as drugs; and secondly, fluorine editing has become a prevalent protocol in drug-candidate optimization. Accordingly, fluorine-containing amino acids represent one of the more promising and rapidly developing areas of research in organic, bio-organic and medicinal chemistry. The goal of this Review article is to highlight the current state-of-the-art in this area by profiling 42 selected compounds that combine fluorine and amino acid structural elements. The compounds under discussion represent pharmaceutical drugs currently on the market, or in clinical trials as well as examples of drug-candidates that although withdrawn from development had a significant impact on the progress of medicinal chemistry and/or provided a deeper understanding of the nature and mechanism of biological action. For each compound, we present features of biological activity, a brief history of the design principles and the development of the synthetic approach, focusing on the source of tailor-made amino acid structures and fluorination methods. General aspects of the medicinal chemistry of fluorine-containing amino acids and synthetic methodology are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibo Mei
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Jianlin Han
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Karel D Klika
- Molecular Structure Analysis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kunisuke Izawa
- Hamari Chemicals Ltd., 1-4-29 Kunijima, Higashi-Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, 533-0024, Japan.
| | - Tatsunori Sato
- Hamari Chemicals Ltd., 1-4-29 Kunijima, Higashi-Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, 533-0024, Japan
| | - Nicholas A Meanwell
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, PO Box 4000, Princeton, NJ, 08543-4000, United States.
| | - Vadim A Soloshonok
- Department of Organic Chemistry I, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel Lardizábal 3, 20018, San Sebastián, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, María Díaz de Haro 3, Plaza Bizkaia, 48013, Bilbao, Spain.
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3
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Vargas DF, Larghi EL, Kaufman TS. The 6π-azaelectrocyclization of azatrienes. Synthetic applications in natural products, bioactive heterocycles, and related fields. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:354-401. [PMID: 30090891 DOI: 10.1039/c8np00014j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2006 to 2018 The application of the 6π-azaelectrocyclization of azatrienes as a key strategy for the synthesis of natural products, their analogs and related bioactive or biomedically-relevant compounds (from 2006 to date) is comprehensively reviewed. Details about reaction optimization studies, relevant reaction mechanisms and conditions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier F Vargas
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR, CONICET-UNR), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas - Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina.
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4
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The therapeutic voyage of pyrazole and its analogs: A review. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 120:170-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.04.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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5
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Tomassoli I, Herlem G, Picaud F, Benchekroun M, Bautista-Aguilera OM, Luzet V, Jimeno ML, Gharbi T, Refouvelet B, Ismaili L. Synthesis, regioselectivity, and DFT analysis of new antioxidant pyrazolo[4,3-c]quinoline-3,4-diones. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-016-1660-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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6
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Heredia DA, Larghi EL, Kaufman TS. A Straightforward Synthesis of 5-Methylaaptamine from Eugenol, Employing a 6π-Electrocyclization Reaction of a 1-Azatriene. European J Org Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201501566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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7
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Yu J, Moon HR, Lim JW, Kim JN. Synthesis of Pyrazolo[4,3-c]quinolines from Morita-Baylis-Hillman Adducts of 2-Bromobenzaldehydes. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.10050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Basic Science; Chonnam National University; Gwangju 500-757 Korea
| | - Hye Ran Moon
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Basic Science; Chonnam National University; Gwangju 500-757 Korea
| | - Jin Woo Lim
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Basic Science; Chonnam National University; Gwangju 500-757 Korea
| | - Jae Nyoung Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Basic Science; Chonnam National University; Gwangju 500-757 Korea
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8
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Chronic γ-secretase inhibition reduces amyloid plaque-associated instability of pre- and postsynaptic structures. Mol Psychiatry 2014; 19:937-46. [PMID: 24061497 PMCID: PMC4113951 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2013.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The loss of synapses is a strong histological correlate of the cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), a cleavage product of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), exerts detrimental effects on synapses, a process thought to be causally related to the cognitive deficits in AD. Here, we used in vivo two-photon microscopy to characterize the dynamics of axonal boutons and dendritic spines in APP/Presenilin 1 (APP(swe)/PS1(L166P))-green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic mice. Time-lapse imaging over 4 weeks revealed a pronounced, concerted instability of pre- and postsynaptic structures within the vicinity of amyloid plaques. Treatment with a novel sulfonamide-type γ-secretase inhibitor (GSI) attenuated the formation and growth of new plaques and, most importantly, led to a normalization of the enhanced dynamics of synaptic structures close to plaques. GSI treatment did neither affect spines and boutons distant from plaques in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1-GFP (APPPS1-GFP) nor those in GFP-control mice, suggesting no obvious neuropathological side effects of the drug.
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9
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Aubele DL, Hom RK, Adler M, Galemmo RA, Bowers S, Truong AP, Pan H, Beroza P, Neitz RJ, Yao N, Lin M, Tonn G, Zhang H, Bova MP, Ren Z, Tam D, Ruslim L, Baker J, Diep L, Fitzgerald K, Hoffman J, Motter R, Fauss D, Tanaka P, Dappen M, Jagodzinski J, Chan W, Konradi AW, Latimer L, Zhu YL, Sham HL, Anderson JP, Bergeron M, Artis DR. Selective and brain-permeable polo-like kinase-2 (Plk-2) inhibitors that reduce α-synuclein phosphorylation in rat brain. ChemMedChem 2013; 8:1295-313. [PMID: 23794260 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Polo-like kinase-2 (Plk-2) has been implicated as the dominant kinase involved in the phosphorylation of α-synuclein in Lewy bodies, which are one of the hallmarks of Parkinson's disease neuropathology. Potent, selective, brain-penetrant inhibitors of Plk-2 were obtained from a structure-guided drug discovery approach driven by the first reported Plk-2-inhibitor complexes. The best of these compounds showed excellent isoform and kinome-wide selectivity, with physicochemical properties sufficient to interrogate the role of Plk-2 inhibition in vivo. One such compound significantly decreased phosphorylation of α-synuclein in rat brain upon oral administration and represents a useful probe for future studies of this therapeutic avenue toward the potential treatment of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle L Aubele
- Molecular Discovery, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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10
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Probst G, Aubele DL, Bowers S, Dressen D, Garofalo AW, Hom RK, Konradi AW, Marugg JL, Mattson MN, Neitzel ML, Semko CM, Sham HL, Smith J, Sun M, Truong AP, Ye XM, Xu YZ, Dappen MS, Jagodzinski JJ, Keim PS, Peterson B, Latimer LH, Quincy D, Wu J, Goldbach E, Ness DK, Quinn KP, Sauer JM, Wong K, Zhang H, Zmolek W, Brigham EF, Kholodenko D, Hu K, Kwong GT, Lee M, Liao A, Motter RN, Sacayon P, Santiago P, Willits C, Bard F, Bova MP, Hemphill SS, Nguyen L, Ruslim L, Tanaka K, Tanaka P, Wallace W, Yednock TA, Basi GS. Discovery of (R)-4-Cyclopropyl-7,8-difluoro-5-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenylsulfonyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazolo[4,3-c]quinoline (ELND006) and (R)-4-Cyclopropyl-8-fluoro-5-(6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-3-ylsulfonyl)-4,5-dihydro-2H-pyrazolo[4,3-c]quinoline (ELND007): Metabolically Stable γ-Secretase Inhibitors that Selectively Inhibit the Production of Amyloid-β over Notch. J Med Chem 2013; 56:5261-74. [DOI: 10.1021/jm301741t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gary Probst
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Danielle L. Aubele
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Simeon Bowers
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Darren Dressen
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Albert W. Garofalo
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Roy K. Hom
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Andrei W. Konradi
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Marugg
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Matthew N. Mattson
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Martin L. Neitzel
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Chris M. Semko
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Hing L. Sham
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jenifer Smith
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Minghua Sun
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Anh P. Truong
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Xiaocong M. Ye
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Ying-zi Xu
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Michael S. Dappen
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jacek J. Jagodzinski
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Pamela S. Keim
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Brian Peterson
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Lee H. Latimer
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - David Quincy
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Erich Goldbach
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Daniel K. Ness
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Kevin P. Quinn
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - John-Michael Sauer
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Karina Wong
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Wes Zmolek
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Elizabeth F. Brigham
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Dora Kholodenko
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Kang Hu
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Grace T. Kwong
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Michael Lee
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Anna Liao
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Ruth N. Motter
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Patricia Sacayon
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Pamela Santiago
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Christopher Willits
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
| | - Frédérique Bard
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Michael P. Bova
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Susanna S. Hemphill
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Lam Nguyen
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Lany Ruslim
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Kevin Tanaka
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Pearl Tanaka
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - William Wallace
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Ted A. Yednock
- Department of Medicinal
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Department of Process and Analytical
Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Department of Lead Finding, Drug
Disposition, and Safety Evaluation, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
- Department
of In Vivo Pharmacology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080,
United States
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Guriqbal S. Basi
- Department
of Biology, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster
Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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11
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Bowers S, Xu YZ, Yuan S, Probst GD, Hom RK, Chan W, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Zhu YL, Beroza P, Pan H, Brecht E, Yao N, Lougheed J, Tam D, Ren Z, Ruslim L, Bova MP, Artis DR. Structure-based design of novel dihydroisoquinoline BACE-1 inhibitors that do not engage the catalytic aspartates. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:2181-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.01.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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12
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Ye XM, Konradi AW, Sun M, Yuan S, Aubele DL, Dappen M, Dressen D, Garofalo AW, Jagodzinski JJ, Latimer L, Probst GD, Sham HL, Wone D, Xu YZ, Ness D, Brigham E, Kwong GT, Willtis C, Tonn G, Goldbach E, Quinn KP, Zhang HH, Sauer JM, Bova M, Basi GS. Discovery of a novel [3.2.1] benzo fused bicyclic sulfonamide-pyrazoles as potent, selective and efficacious γ-secretase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:996-1000. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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13
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Parker MF, Barten DM, Bergstrom CP, Bronson JJ, Corsa JA, Dee MF, Gai Y, Guss VL, Higgins MA, Keavy DJ, Loo A, Mate RA, Marcin LR, McElhone KE, Polson CT, Roberts SB, Macor JE. 2-(N-Benzyl-N-phenylsulfonamido)alkyl amide derivatives as γ-secretase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:6828-31. [PMID: 23046960 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.09.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Revised: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A series of (N-benzyl-N-phenylsulfonamido)alkyl amides were developed from classic and parallel synthesis strategies. Compounds with good in vitro and in vivo γ-secretase activity were identified and described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Parker
- Molecular Sciences and Candidate Optimization and Neuroscience Discovery Biology, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, CT 06492, United States.
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves L. Janin
- Institut Pasteur, Laboratoire de Chimie Médicinale, Département
de
Biologie Structurale et Chimie, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex
15, France
- CNRS, UMR 3523, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex
15, France
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15
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16
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17
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Stepan AF, Karki K, McDonald WS, Dorff PH, Dutra JK, DiRico KJ, Won A, Subramanyam C, Efremov IV, O’Donnell CJ, Nolan CE, Becker SL, Pustilnik LR, Sneed B, Sun H, Lu Y, Robshaw AE, Riddell D, O'Sullivan TJ, Sibley E, Capetta S, Atchison K, Hallgren AJ, Miller E, Wood A, Obach RS. Metabolism-Directed Design of Oxetane-Containing Arylsulfonamide Derivatives as γ-Secretase Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2011; 54:7772-83. [DOI: 10.1021/jm200893p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Antonia F. Stepan
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Kapil Karki
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - W. Scott McDonald
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Peter H. Dorff
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Jason K. Dutra
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Kenneth J. DiRico
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Annie Won
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Chakrapani Subramanyam
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Ivan V. Efremov
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Christopher J. O’Donnell
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Charles E. Nolan
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Stacey L. Becker
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Leslie R. Pustilnik
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Blossom Sneed
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Hao Sun
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Yasong Lu
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Ashley E. Robshaw
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - David Riddell
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Theresa J. O'Sullivan
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Evelyn Sibley
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Steven Capetta
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Kevin Atchison
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Andrew J. Hallgren
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Emily Miller
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Anthony Wood
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - R. Scott Obach
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
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Design, synthesis and structure–activity relationship of novel [3.3.1] bicyclic sulfonamide-pyrazoles as potent γ-secretase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:5791-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Lu Y, Zhang L, Nolan CE, Becker SL, Atchison K, Robshaw AE, Pustilnik LR, Osgood SM, Miller EH, Stepan AF, Subramanyam C, Efremov I, Hallgren AJ, Riddell D. Quantitative pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analyses suggest that the 129/SVE mouse is a suitable preclinical pharmacology model for identifying small-molecule γ-secretase inhibitors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 339:922-34. [PMID: 21930801 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.186791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses a serious public health threat to the United States. Disease-modifying drugs slowing AD progression are in urgent need, but they are still unavailable. According to the amyloid cascade hypothesis, inhibition of β- or γ-secretase, key enzymes for the production of amyloid β (Aβ), may be viable mechanisms for the treatment of AD. For the discovery of γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs), the APP-overexpressing Tg2576 mouse has been the preclinical model of choice, in part because of the ease of detection of Aβ species in its brain, plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Some biological observations and practical considerations, however, argue against the use of the Tg2576 mouse. We reasoned that an animal model would be suitable for GSI discovery if the pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) relationship of a compound for Aβ lowering in this model is predictive of that in human. In this study, we assessed whether the background 129/SVE strain is a suitable preclinical pharmacology model for identifying new GSIs by evaluating the translatability of the intrinsic PK/PD relationships for brain and CSF Aβ across the Tg2576 and 129/SVE mouse and human. Using semimechanistically based PK/PD modeling, our analyses indicated that the intrinsic PK/PD relationship for brain Aβx-42 and CSF Aβx-40 in the 129/SVE mouse is indicative of that for human CSF Aβ. This result, in conjunction with practical considerations, strongly suggests that the 129/SVE mouse is a suitable model for GSI discovery. Concurrently, the necessity and utilities of PK/PD modeling for rational interpretation of Aβ data are established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasong Lu
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA
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Hopkins CR. ACS chemical neuroscience molecule spotlight on ELND006: another γ-secretase inhibitor fails in the clinic. ACS Chem Neurosci 2011; 2:279-80. [PMID: 22778871 DOI: 10.1021/cn2000469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
ELND006 is a novel γ-secretase inhibitor by Elan Corporation that was in the clinic as a potential treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The clinical trial for ELND006 was halted in October 2010 due to liver side effects that are thought to be unrelated to the mechanism of action. However, this represents another small molecule γ-secretase inhibitor that has failed in clinical trials (semagacestat) (http://newsroom.lilly.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=499794) which raises serious questions regarding this mechanism for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corey R. Hopkins
- Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-6600, United States
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21
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Neitz RJ, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Zmolek W, Wong K, Qin A, Lorentzen C, Nakamura D, Quinn KP, Sauer JM, Powell K, Ruslim L, Chereau D, Ren Z, Anderson J, Bard F, Yednock TA, Griswold-Prenner I. Highly selective c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) 3 inhibitors with in vitro CNS-like pharmacokinetic properties II. Central core replacement. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:3726-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.04.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Revised: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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22
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Neitzel ML, Aubele DL, Marugg JL, Jagodzinski JJ, Konradi AW, Pleiss MA, Szoke B, Zmolek W, Goldbach E, Quinn KP, Sauer JM, Brigham EF, Wallace W, Bova MP, Hemphill S, Basi G. Amino-caprolactam γ-secretase inhibitors showing potential for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:3715-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.04.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2011] [Revised: 04/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Bowers S, Truong AP, Neitz RJ, Neitzel M, Probst GD, Hom RK, Peterson B, Galemmo RA, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Tóth G, Pan H, Yao N, Artis DR, Brigham EF, Quinn KP, Sauer JM, Powell K, Ruslim L, Ren Z, Bard F, Yednock TA, Griswold-Prenner I. Design and synthesis of a novel, orally active, brain penetrant, tri-substituted thiophene based JNK inhibitor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:1838-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2010] [Revised: 01/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Arbačiauskienė E, Vilkauskaitė G, Šačkus A, Holzer W. Ethyl 3- and 5-Triflyloxy-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxylates in the Synthesis of Condensed Pyrazoles by Pd-Catalysed Cross-Coupling Reactions. European J Org Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201001560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Basi GS, Hemphill S, Brigham EF, Liao A, Aubele DL, Baker J, Barbour R, Bova M, Chen XH, Dappen MS, Eichenbaum T, Goldbach E, Hawkinson J, Lawler-Herbold R, Hu K, Hui T, Jagodzinski JJ, Keim PS, Kholodenko D, Latimer LH, Lee M, Marugg J, Mattson MN, McCauley S, Miller JL, Motter R, Mutter L, Neitzel ML, Ni H, Nguyen L, Quinn K, Ruslim L, Semko CM, Shapiro P, Smith J, Soriano F, Szoke B, Tanaka K, Tang P, Tucker JA, Ye XM, Yu M, Wu J, Xu YZ, Garofalo AW, Sauer JM, Konradi AW, Ness D, Shopp G, Pleiss MA, Freedman SB, Schenk D. Amyloid precursor protein selective gamma-secretase inhibitors for treatment of Alzheimer's disease. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2010; 2:36. [PMID: 21190552 PMCID: PMC3031881 DOI: 10.1186/alzrt60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Revised: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Inhibition of gamma-secretase presents a direct target for lowering Aβ production in the brain as a therapy for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, gamma-secretase is known to process multiple substrates in addition to amyloid precursor protein (APP), most notably Notch, which has limited clinical development of inhibitors targeting this enzyme. It has been postulated that APP substrate selective inhibitors of gamma-secretase would be preferable to non-selective inhibitors from a safety perspective for AD therapy. METHODS In vitro assays monitoring inhibitor potencies at APP γ-site cleavage (equivalent to Aβ40), and Notch ε-site cleavage, in conjunction with a single cell assay to simultaneously monitor selectivity for inhibition of Aβ production vs. Notch signaling were developed to discover APP selective gamma-secretase inhibitors. In vivo efficacy for acute reduction of brain Aβ was determined in the PDAPP transgene model of AD, as well as in wild-type FVB strain mice. In vivo selectivity was determined following seven days x twice per day (b.i.d.) treatment with 15 mg/kg/dose to 1,000 mg/kg/dose ELN475516, and monitoring brain Aβ reduction vs. Notch signaling endpoints in periphery. RESULTS The APP selective gamma-secretase inhibitors ELN318463 and ELN475516 reported here behave as classic gamma-secretase inhibitors, demonstrate 75- to 120-fold selectivity for inhibiting Aβ production compared with Notch signaling in cells, and displace an active site directed inhibitor at very high concentrations only in the presence of substrate. ELN318463 demonstrated discordant efficacy for reduction of brain Aβ in the PDAPP compared with wild-type FVB, not observed with ELN475516. Improved in vivo safety of ELN475516 was demonstrated in the 7d repeat dose study in wild-type mice, where a 33% reduction of brain Aβ was observed in mice terminated three hours post last dose at the lowest dose of inhibitor tested. No overt in-life or post-mortem indications of systemic toxicity, nor RNA and histological end-points indicative of toxicity attributable to inhibition of Notch signaling were observed at any dose tested. CONCLUSIONS The discordant in vivo activity of ELN318463 suggests that the potency of gamma-secretase inhibitors in AD transgenic mice should be corroborated in wild-type mice. The discovery of ELN475516 demonstrates that it is possible to develop APP selective gamma-secretase inhibitors with potential for treatment for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guriqbal S Basi
- Elan Pharmaceuticals, Inc, 180 Oyster Point Blvd, S, San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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Design and synthesis of disubstituted thiophene and thiazole based inhibitors of JNK. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:7303-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.10.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 10/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Truong AP, Tóth G, Probst GD, Sealy JM, Bowers S, Wone DWG, Dressen D, Hom RK, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Wu J, Peterson BT, Ruslim L, Bova MP, Kholodenko D, Motter RN, Bard F, Santiago P, Ni H, Chian D, Soriano F, Cole T, Brigham EF, Wong K, Zmolek W, Goldbach E, Samant B, Chen L, Zhang H, Nakamura DF, Quinn KP, Yednock TA, Sauer JM. Design of an orally efficacious hydroxyethylamine (HEA) BACE-1 inhibitor in a preclinical animal model. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:6231-6. [PMID: 20833041 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.08.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In this Letter, we describe our efforts to design HEA BACE-1 inhibitors that are highly permeable coupled with negligible levels of permeability-glycoprotein activity. These efforts culminate in producing 16 which lowers Αβ by 28% and 32% in the cortex and CSF, respectively, in the preclinical wild type Hartley guinea pig animal model when dosed orally at 30mpk BID for 2.5days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh P Truong
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, United States
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Truong AP, Probst GD, Aquino J, Fang L, Brogley L, Sealy JM, Hom RK, Tucker JA, John V, Tung JS, Pleiss MA, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Dappen MS, Tóth G, Yao N, Brecht E, Pan H, Artis DR, Ruslim L, Bova MP, Sinha S, Yednock TA, Zmolek W, Quinn KP, Sauer JM. Improving the permeability of the hydroxyethylamine BACE-1 inhibitors: Structure–activity relationship of P2′ substituents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:4789-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.06.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Revised: 06/14/2010] [Accepted: 06/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Discovery of a novel sulfonamide-pyrazolopiperidine series as potent and efficacious γ-secretase inhibitors (Part II). Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:3502-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.04.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 04/28/2010] [Accepted: 04/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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30
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Ye XM, Konradi AW, Smith J, Xu YZ, Dressen D, Garofalo AW, Marugg J, Sham HL, Truong AP, Jagodzinski J, Pleiss M, Zhang H, Goldbach E, Sauer JM, Brigham E, Bova M, Basi GS. Discovery of a novel sulfonamide-pyrazolopiperidine series as potent and Efficacious γ-Secretase Inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:2195-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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31
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Mattson MN, Neitzel ML, Quincy DA, Semko CM, Garofalo AW, Keim PS, Konradi AW, Pleiss MA, Sham HL, Brigham EF, Goldbach EG, Zhang H, Sauer JM, Basi GS. Discovery of sulfonamide–pyrazole γ-secretase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:2148-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.02.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 02/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Bowers S, Probst GD, Truong AP, Hom RK, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Garofalo AW, Wong K, Goldbach E, Quinn KP, Sauer JM, Wallace W, Nguyen L, Hemphill SS, Bova MP, Basi GS. N-Bridged bicyclic sulfonamides as inhibitors of γ-secretase. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:6952-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.10.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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33
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Sealy JM, Truong AP, Tso L, Probst GD, Aquino J, Hom RK, Jagodzinska BM, Dressen D, Wone DW, Brogley L, John V, Tung JS, Pleiss MA, Tucker JA, Konradi AW, Dappen MS, Toth G, Pan H, Ruslim L, Miller J, Bova MP, Sinha S, Quinn KP, Sauer JM. Design and synthesis of cell potent BACE-1 inhibitors: Structure–activity relationship of P1′ substituents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:6386-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.09.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2009] [Revised: 09/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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