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Viviani G, Visalli A, Montefinese M, Vallesi A, Ambrosini E. The Stroop legacy: A cautionary tale on methodological issues and a proposed spatial solution. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:4758-4785. [PMID: 37620747 PMCID: PMC11289023 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02215-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The Stroop task is a seminal paradigm in experimental psychology, so much that various variants of the classical color-word version have been proposed. Here we offer a methodological review of them to emphasize the importance of designing methodologically rigorous Stroop tasks. This is not an end by itself, but it is fundamental to achieve adequate measurement validity, which is currently hindered by methodological heterogeneity and limitations. Among the several Stroop task variants in the literature, our methodological overview shows that the spatial Stroop task is not only a potentially methodologically adequate variant, which can thus assure measuring the Stroop effect with the required validity, but it might even allow researchers to overcome some of the methodological limitations of the classical paradigm due to its use of verbal stimuli. We thus focused on the spatial Stroop tasks in the literature to verify whether they really exploit such inherent potentiality. However, we show that this was generally not the case because only a few of them (1) are purely spatial, (2) ensure both all the three types of conflicts/facilitations (at the stimulus, response, and task levels) and the dimensional overlaps considered fundamental for yielding a complete Stroop effect according to the multiple loci account and Kornblum's theory, respectively, and (3) controlled for low-level binding and priming effects that could bias the estimated Stroop effect. Based on these methodological considerations, we present some examples of spatial Stroop tasks that, in our view, satisfy such requirements and, thus, ensure producing complete Stroop effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Viviani
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Maria Montefinese
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Ettore Ambrosini
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy.
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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2
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Spinelli G, Lupker SJ. A spatial version of the Stroop task for examining proactive and reactive control independently from non-conflict processes. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024; 86:1259-1286. [PMID: 38691237 PMCID: PMC11093857 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-024-02892-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Conflict-induced control refers to humans' ability to regulate attention in the processing of target information (e.g., the color of a word in the color-word Stroop task) based on experience with conflict created by distracting information (e.g., an incongruent color word), and to do so either in a proactive (preparatory) or a reactive (stimulus-driven) fashion. Interest in conflict-induced control has grown recently, as has the awareness that effects attributed to those processes might be affected by conflict-unrelated processes (e.g., the learning of stimulus-response associations). This awareness has resulted in the recommendation to move away from traditional interference paradigms with small stimulus/response sets and towards paradigms with larger sets (at least four targets, distractors, and responses), paradigms that allow better control of non-conflict processes. Using larger sets, however, is not always feasible. Doing so in the Stroop task, for example, would require either multiple arbitrary responses that are difficult for participants to learn (e.g., manual responses to colors) or non-arbitrary responses that can be difficult for researchers to collect (e.g., vocal responses in online experiments). Here, we present a spatial version of the Stroop task that solves many of those problems. In this task, participants respond to one of six directions indicated by an arrow, each requiring a specific, non-arbitrary manual response, while ignoring the location where the arrow is displayed. We illustrate the usefulness of this task by showing the results of two experiments in which evidence for proactive and reactive control was obtained while controlling for the impact of non-conflict processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Spinelli
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza dell'Ateneo Nuovo 1, 20126, Milano, MI, Italy.
| | - Stephen J Lupker
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 5C2, Canada.
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3
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Viviani G, Visalli A, Finos L, Vallesi A, Ambrosini E. A comparison between different variants of the spatial Stroop task: The influence of analytic flexibility on Stroop effect estimates and reliability. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:934-951. [PMID: 36894759 PMCID: PMC10830653 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02091-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
The spatial Stroop task measures the ability to resolve interference between relevant and irrelevant spatial information. We recently proposed a four-choice spatial Stroop task that ensures methodological advantages over the original color-word verbal Stroop task, requiring participants to indicate the direction of an arrow while ignoring its position in one of the screen corners. However, its peripheral spatial arrangement might represent a methodological weakness and could introduce experimental confounds. Thus, aiming at improving our "Peripheral" spatial Stroop, we designed and made available five novel spatial Stroop tasks (Perifoveal, Navon, Figure-Ground, Flanker, and Saliency), wherein the stimuli appeared at the center of the screen. In a within-subjects online study, we compared the six versions to identify which task produced the largest but also the most reliable and robust Stroop effect. Indeed, although internal reliability is frequently overlooked, its estimate is fundamental, also in light of the recently proposed reliability paradox. Data analyses were performed using both the classical general linear model analytical approach and two multilevel modelling approaches (linear mixed models and random coefficient analysis), which specifically served for more accurately estimating the Stroop effect by explaining intra-subject, trial-by-trial variability. We then assessed our results based on their robustness to such analytic flexibility. Overall, our results indicate that the Perifoveal spatial Stroop is the best alternative task for its statistical properties and methodological advantages. Interestingly, our results also indicate that the Peripheral and Perifoveal Stroop effects were not only the largest, but also those with highest and most robust internal reliability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Viviani
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Visalli
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Livio Finos
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Ettore Ambrosini
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy.
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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Visalli A, Ambrosini E, Viviani G, Sambataro F, Tenconi E, Vallesi A. On the relationship between emotions and cognitive control: Evidence from an observational study on emotional priming Stroop task. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0294957. [PMID: 38011212 PMCID: PMC10681184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence is discordant regarding how emotional processing and cognitive control interact to shape behavior. This observational study sought to examine this interaction by looking at the distinction between proactive and reactive modes of control and how they relate to emotional processing. Seventy-four healthy participants performed an emotional priming Stroop task. On each trial, target stimuli of a spatial Stroop task were preceded by sad or neutral facial expressions, providing two emotional conditions. To manipulate the requirement of both proactive and reactive control, the proportion of congruent trials (PC) was varied at the list-wide (LWPC) and item-specific (ISPC) levels, respectively. We found that sad priming led to behavioral costs only in trials with low proactive and reactive cognitive control demands. Our findings suggest that emotional processing affects cognitive processes other than cognitive control in the Stroop task. Moreover, both proactive and reactive control modes seem effective in overcoming emotional interference of priming stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ettore Ambrosini
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Giada Viviani
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Fabio Sambataro
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Elena Tenconi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Xiao K, Zhang A, Qu J, Deng F, Guo C, Yamauchi T. Hand Motions Reveal Attentional Status and Subliminal Semantic Processing: A Mouse-Tracking Technique. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1267. [PMID: 37759868 PMCID: PMC10526379 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Theories of embodied cognition suggest that hand motions and cognition are closely interconnected. An emerging technique of tracking how participants move a computer mouse (i.e., the mouse-tracking technique) has shown advantages over the traditional response time measurement to detect implicit cognitive conflicts. Previous research suggests that attention is essential for subliminal processing to take place at a semantic level. However, this assumption is challenged by evidence showing the presence of subliminal semantic processing in the near-absence of attention. The inconsistency of evidence could stem from the insufficient sensitivity in the response time measurement. Therefore, we examined the role of attention in subliminal semantic processing by analyzing participants' hand motions using the mouse-tracking technique. The results suggest that subliminal semantic processing is not only enhanced by attention but also occurs when attention is disrupted, challenging the necessity of facilitated top-down attention for subliminal semantic processing, as claimed by a number of studies. In addition, by manipulating the color of attentional cues, our experiment shows that the cue color per se could influence participants' response patterns. Overall, the current study suggests that attentional status and subliminal semantic processing can be reliably revealed by temporal-spatial features extracted from cursor motion trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunchen Xiao
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Anqi Zhang
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Jingke Qu
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Feifei Deng
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Chenyan Guo
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Takashi Yamauchi
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4235, USA
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Kieffaber PD, Osborne J, Norton E, Hilimire M. Deconstructing the Functional Significance of the Error-related Negativity (ERN) and Midline Frontal Theta Oscillations Using Stepwise Time-locking and Single-trial Response Dynamics. Neuroimage 2023; 274:120113. [PMID: 37062374 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Error-related electroencephalographic potentials have been used for decades to develop theoretical models of response monitoring processes, study altered cognitive functioning in clinical populations, and more recently, to improve the performance of brain-computer interfaces. However, the vast majority of this research relies on discrete behavioral responses that confound error detection, response cancellation, error correction, and post-error cognitive and affective processes. By contrast, the present study demonstrates a novel, complementary method for isolating the functional correlates of error-related electroencephalographic responses using single-trial kinematic analyses of cursor trajectories and a stepwise time-locking analysis. The results reveal that the latency of the ERN, Pe, and medial-frontal theta oscillations are all strongly positively correlated with the latency at which an initiated error response is canceled, as indicated by the peak deceleration of the initiated movement prior to a corrective response. Results are discussed with respect to current theoretical models of error-related brain potentials and potential relevance to clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Kieffaber
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William & Mary.
| | - Juston Osborne
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William & Mary; Department of Psychology, Northwestern University
| | - Emily Norton
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William & Mary
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Rouy M, Roger M, Goueytes D, Pereira M, Roux P, Faivre N. Preserved electrophysiological markers of confidence in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. SCHIZOPHRENIA (HEIDELBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 9:12. [PMID: 36823178 PMCID: PMC9950441 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-023-00333-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A large number of behavioral studies suggest that confidence judgments are impaired in schizophrenia, motivating the search for neural correlates of an underlying metacognitive impairment. Electrophysiological studies suggest that a specific evoked response potential reflecting performance monitoring, namely the error-related negativity (ERN), is blunted in schizophrenia compared to healthy controls. However, attention has recently been drawn to a potential confound in the study of metacognition, namely that lower task-performance in schizophrenia compared to healthy controls involves a decreased index of metacognitive performance (where metacognitive performance is construed as the ability to calibrate one's confidence relative to response correctness), independently of metacognitive abilities among patients. Here, we assessed how this confound might also apply to ERN-blunting in schizophrenia. We used an adaptive staircase procedure to titrate task-performance on a motion discrimination task in which participants (N = 14 patients and 19 controls) had to report their confidence after each trial while we recorded high density EEG. Interestingly, not only metaperceptual abilities were preserved among patients at the behavioral level, but contrary to our hypothesis, we also found no electrophysiological evidence for altered EEG markers of performance monitoring. These results bring additional evidence suggesting an unaltered ability to monitor perceptual performance on a trial by trial basis in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rouy
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LPNC, 38000, Grenoble, France.
| | | | - Dorian Goueytes
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LPNC, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Michael Pereira
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LPNC, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Paul Roux
- Centre Hospitalier de Versailles, Service Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie d'Adultes et d'Addictologie, Le Chesnay; Université Paris-Saclay; Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-En-Yvelines; DisAP-DevPsy-CESP, INSERM UMR1018, Villejuif, France
| | - Nathan Faivre
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LPNC, 38000, Grenoble, France
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Bartolomeo P, di Pellegrino G, Chelazzi L. The Brain's brake: Inhibitory mechanisms in cognition and action. Cortex 2022; 157:323-326. [PMID: 36402063 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Bartolomeo
- Sorbonne Université, Institut Du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, Inserm, CNRS, AP-HP, Hôpital de La Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France.
| | - Giuseppe di Pellegrino
- Centre for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Cesena, FC, Italy.
| | - Leonardo Chelazzi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Biomedicina e Movimento, Sezione di Fisiologia e Psicologia, Università di Verona, Verona, Italy.
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9
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Moving beyond response times with accessible measures of manual dynamics. Sci Rep 2022; 12:19065. [PMID: 36351962 PMCID: PMC9646795 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20579-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Button-press measures of response time (RT) and accuracy have long served a central role in psychological research. However, RT and accuracy provide limited insight into how cognitive processes unfold over time. To address this limitation, researchers have used hand-tracking techniques to investigate how cognitive processes unfold over the course of a response, are modulated by recent experience, and function across the lifespan. Despite the efficacy of these techniques for investigating a wide range of psychological phenomena, widespread adoption of hand-tracking techniques within the field is hindered by a range of factors, including equipment costs and the use of specialized software. Here, we demonstrate that the behavioral dynamics previously observed with specialized motion-tracking equipment in an Eriksen flanker task can be captured with an affordable, portable, and easy-to-assemble response box. Six-to-eight-year-olds and adults (N = 90) completed a computerized version of the flanker task by pressing and holding a central button until a stimulus array appeared. Participants then responded by releasing the central button and reaching to press one of two response buttons. This method allowed RT to be separated into initiation time (when the central button was released) and movement time (time elapsed between initiation and completion of the response). Consistent with previous research using motion-tracking techniques, initiation times and movement times revealed distinct patterns of effects across trials and between age groups, indicating that the method used in the current study presents a simple solution for researchers from across the psychological and brain sciences looking to move beyond RTs.
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Chen K, Wang R, Huang J, Gao F, Yuan Z, Qi Y, Wu H. A resource for assessing dynamic binary choices in the adult brain using EEG and mouse-tracking. Sci Data 2022; 9:416. [PMID: 35842416 PMCID: PMC9288455 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01538-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a dataset combining high-density Electroencephalography (HD-EEG, 128-channels) and mouse-tracking intended as a resource for examining the dynamic decision process of semantics and preference choices in the human brain. The dataset includes resting-state and task-related (food preference choices and semantic judgments) EEG acquired from 31 individuals (ages: 18-33). Along with the dataset, we also provided the preliminary microstate analysis of resting-state EEG and the ERPs, topomap, and time-frequency maps of the task-related EEG. We believe that the simultaneous mouse-tracking and EEG recording would crack the core components of binary choices and further index the temporal dynamics of decision making and response hesitation. This publicly available dataset could support the development of neural signal processing methods in motor EEG, thus advancing research in both the decision neuroscience and brain-computer interface (BCI) applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Chen
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Ruien Wang
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Jiamin Huang
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
- Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Fei Gao
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
- Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Zhen Yuan
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Yanyan Qi
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Haiyan Wu
- Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China.
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China.
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Tarantino V, Visalli A, Facchini S, Rossato C, Bertoldo A, Silvestri E, Cecchin D, Capizzi M, Anglani M, Baro V, Denaro L, Della Puppa A, D'Avella D, Corbetta M, Vallesi A. Impaired cognitive control in patients with brain tumors. Neuropsychologia 2022; 169:108187. [PMID: 35218790 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Though the assessment of cognitive functions is proven to be a reliable prognostic indicator in patients with brain tumors, some of these functions, such as cognitive control, are still rarely investigated. The objective of this study was to examine proactive and reactive control functions in patients with focal brain tumors and to identify lesioned brain areas more at "risk" for developing impairment of these functions. To this end, a group of twenty-two patients, candidate to surgery, were tested with an AX-CPT task and a Stroop task, along with a clinical neuropsychological assessment, and their performance was compared to that of a well-matched healthy control group. Although overall accuracy and response times were similar for patients and control groups, the patient group failed more on the BX trials of the AX-CPT task and the incongruent trials of the Stroop task, specifically. Behavioral results were associated with the damaged brain areas, mostly distributed in right frontal regions, by means of a lesion-symptom mapping multivariate approach. This analysis showed that a white matter cluster in the right prefrontal area was associated with lower d'-context values on the AX-CPT, which reflect the fact that these patients rely more on later information (reactive processes) to respond to unexpected and conflicting stimuli, than on earlier contextual cues (proactive processes). Taken together, these results suggest that patients with brain tumors present an unbalance between proactive and reactive control strategies in more interfering conditions, in association with right prefrontal white matter lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenza Tarantino
- Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Antonino Visalli
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Silvia Facchini
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Chiara Rossato
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Alessandra Bertoldo
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Erica Silvestri
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Diego Cecchin
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | | | - Valentina Baro
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Denaro
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Alessandro Della Puppa
- Neurosurgery, Department of NEUROFARBA, University Hospital of Careggi, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Domenico D'Avella
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Maurizio Corbetta
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM) Padova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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