Chemical crosslinking improves the gastrointestinal stability and enhances nutrient delivery potentials of egg yolk LDL/polysaccharide nanogels

Protein-Pectin Delivery Carriers for Food Bioactive Ingredients: Preparation, Release Mechanism, and Application

Food bioactive ingredients have received widespread attention due to their excellent nutritional and functional properties, regulating the organism. However, some food bioactive ingredients have the disadvantages of poor stability and low bioavailability, which limits their wider application in food. The current study has recently shown a growing interest in designing delivery systems due to their advantages in encapsulating, protecting, and controlling the release of food bioactive ingredients. This review summarizes the classification of protein-pectin delivery carriers, including emulsions, nanoparticles, microcapsules, gels, and films. Besides, the typical preparation methods and the factors affecting the stability of the carriers were presented. Moreover, the release mechanism of the protein-pectin delivery carriers was introduced. Furthermore, the applications of protein-pectin delivery carriers were also described. The protein-pectin delivery carriers have broad research prospects in the functional food and nutritional field. Protein-pectin delivery carriers can enhance the protection of food bioactive ingredient delivery due to their strong interaction force and excellent emulsification properties. Therefore, they can effectively protect food bioactive ingredients from harsh processing conditions and adverse environments in vivo, and improve their physicochemical properties, stability, and bioavailability, which have good application prospects.

High internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by egg yolk-carboxymethyl cellulose as an age-friendly dysphagia food: Tracking the dynamic transition from co-solubility to coacervates

Although protein-polysaccharide complexes with different phase behaviors all show potential for stabilizing high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs), it is not clarified which aggregation state is more stable and age-friendly. In this study, we investigated and compared the stability and age friendliness of HIPPEs stabilized with egg yolk and carboxymethyl cellulose (EYCMC) in different phase behaviors. The results revealed differences in particle size, aggregation state, charge potential, and stability of secondary and tertiary structures of EYCMC. The behavior of EYCMC at the oil-water interface was mainly divided into three phases: rapid diffusion, permeation, and reorganization. The electrostatic interaction, kinetic hindrance, and depletion attraction were the mechanisms primarily involved in stabilizing HIPPEs by EYCMC. Rheological analysis results indicated that HIPPEs had excellent viscoelasticity, structural recovery properties and yield stress. HIPPEs were used in 3D printing, electronic nose testing, IDDSI testing and in vitro digestive simulations for the elderly, demonstrating a fine appearance, safe consumption and bioaccessibility of β-carotene. Soluble complexes showed the best stability and age friendliness compared to other aggregated forms. This study serves as a foundational source of information for developing innovative foods utilizing HIPPEs.

From Nature-Sourced Polysaccharide Particles to Advanced Functional Materials

Polysaccharides constitute over 90% of the carbohydrate mass in nature, which makes them a promising feedstock for manufacturing sustainable materials. Polysaccharide particles (PSPs) are used as effective scavengers, carriers of chemical and biological cargos, and building blocks for the fabrication of macroscopic materials. The biocompatibility and degradability of PSPs are advantageous for their uses as biomaterials with more environmental friendliness. This review highlights the progresses in PSP applications as advanced functional materials, by describing PSP extraction, preparation, and surface functionalization with a variety of functional groups, polymers, nanoparticles, and biologically active species. This review also outlines the fabrication of PSP-derived macroscopic materials, as well as their applications in soft robotics, sensing, scavenging, water harvesting, drug delivery, and bioengineering. The paper is concluded with an outlook providing perspectives in the development and applications of PSP-derived materials.

Construction of protein-, polysaccharide- and polyphenol-based conjugates as delivery systems

Natural polymers, such as polysaccharides and proteins, have been used to prepare several delivery systems owing to their abundance, bioactivity, and biodegradability. They are usually modified or combined with small molecules to form the delivery systems needed to meet different needs in food systems. This paper reviews the interactions of proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols in the bulk phase and discusses the design strategies, coupling techniques, and their applications as conjugates in emulsion delivery systems, including traditional, Pickering, multilayer, and high internal-phase emulsions. Furthermore, it explores the prospects of the application of conjugates in food preservation, food development, and nanocarrier development. Currently, there are seven methods for composite delivery systems including the Maillard reaction, carbodiimide cross-linking, alkali treatment, enzymatic cross-linking, free radical induction, genipin cross-linking, and Schiff base chemical cross-linking to prepare binary and ternary conjugates of proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. To design an effective target complex and its delivery system, it is helpful to understand the physicochemical properties of these biomolecules and their interactions in the bulk phase. This review summarizes the knowledge on the interaction of biological complexes in the bulk phase, preparation methods, and the preparation of stable emulsion delivery system.

A comparative study between two carboxymethylated polysaccharides/protein electrostatic and cross-linked nanogels constructed for caffeic acid and eugenol delivery

In response to the pressing demand for functional nanomaterials synthesis and applications, two polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) [electrostatic and cross-linked nanogels (NGs)] loaded individually with caffeic acid (CafA) and eugenol (Eug) demonstrating multifunctionalities were proposed for the first time. Curdlan (Curd) and glucomannan (GM) were carboxymethylated (CMCurd and CMGM) successfully and polymeric ratios of 1:1 and 4:1 (v/v) for chitosan (Cs): CMCurd and lactoferrin (Lf): CMGM were selected for the synthesis of Cs/CMCurd and Lf/CMGM NGs. Due to the use of EDC/NHS, Cs/CMCurd/CafA and Lf/CMGM/Eug NGs possessed very uniform particles sizes of 177 ± 18 and 230 ± 17 nm with marked encapsulation efficiencies (EEs) of 76 ± 4 and 88 ± 3 %, respectively. The formation of a carbonyl-amide linkage in both cross-linked NGs was confirmed by FTIR. It should be noted, the self-assembly was not reliable in retaining enough of the encapsulated compounds. Owing to the excellent physicochemical characteristics of the loaded cross-linked NGs, they were prioritized over the electrostatic ones. Both Cs/CMCurd/CafA and Lf/CMGM/Eug NGs exhibited high colloidal stability over 12 weeks, elevated hemocompatibility, and in vitro serum stability. The generated NGs were also tailored to possess controlled release profiles for CafA and Eug over 72 h. Cs/CMCurd/CafA and Lf/CMGM/Eug NGs had promising antioxidant efficacies and could remarkably inhibit 4 bacterial pathogens at low 2-16 μg/mL concentration of encapsulated NGs compared to their unencapsulated counterparts. Interestingly, the respective NGs could significantly decline the IC₅₀ against colorectal cancer HCT-116 than conventional drugs. Based on these data, it was conferred that the investigated NGs could be promising candidates for functional foods and pharmaceutics.

The Impact of Processing and Extraction Methods on the Allergenicity of Targeted Protein Quantification as Well as Bioactive Peptides Derived from Egg

This review article discusses advanced extraction methods to enhance the functionality of egg-derived peptides while reducing their allergenicity. While eggs are considered a nutrient-dense food, some proteins can cause allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. Therefore, various methods have been developed to reduce the allergenicity of egg-derived proteins, such as enzymatic hydrolysis, heat treatment, and glycosylation. In addition to reducing allergenicity, advanced extraction methods can enhance the functionality of egg-derived peptides. Techniques such as membrane separation, chromatography, and electrodialysis can isolate and purify specific egg-derived peptides with desired functional properties, improving their bioactivity. Further, enzymatic hydrolysis can also break down polypeptide sequences and produce bioactive peptides with various health benefits. While liquid chromatography is the most commonly used method to obtain individual proteins for developing novel food products, several challenges are associated with optimizing extraction conditions to maximize functionality and allergenicity reduction. The article also highlights the challenges and future perspectives, including optimizing extraction conditions to maximize functionality and allergenicity reduction. The review concludes by highlighting the potential for future research in this area to improve the safety and efficacy of egg-derived peptides more broadly.

Covalent Cross-Linking as a Strategy to Prepare Water-Dispersible Chitosan Nanogels

Due to the environmental problems generated by petroleum derivative polymers as mentioned in Agenda 2030, the use of natural polymers is increasing. Among them, cellulose and chitin are the most widespread biopolymers available in nature. Chitosan, obtained from chitin, is a really good candidate to develop nanocarriers due to its polyelectrolyte nature and ease of chemical modification. However, chitosan presents a solubility drawback in an aqueous medium at physiological pH (pH = 7.4), which restricts its applicability in biomedicine. In this work, nanogels were successfully synthesized from chitosan systems with different water solubilities (chitosan, oligosaccharide chitosan, and quaternized chitosan) using the reverse microemulsion method and polyethylene glycol diacid (PEGBCOOH) as a covalent cross-linking agent. Cross-linking with PEGBCOOH was analyzed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), which allowed for nanogels to be prepared whose size and swelling were comparatively studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential, respectively. The particle size of the swollen nanogels showed a different pH-responsive behavior that decreased for chitosan, increased for oligosaccharide chitosan, and remained constant for quaternized chitosan. Nevertheless, a drastic reduction was observed in all cases in the culture medium. Along the same line, the dispersibility of the synthesized nanogels in different media was comparatively evaluated, showing similar values for the nanogels prepared from soluble chitosans than for water insoluble chitosan as a consequence of the cross-linking with PEGBCOOH. After 6 months of storage of the dried nanogels, the water dispersibility values remained constant in all cases, demonstrating the stabilizing effect of the employed cross-linking agent and the potential use of synthesized nanogels as substrates for drug delivery.

Novel extraction technologies and potential applications of egg yolk proteins

The high nutritional value and diverse functional properties of egg yolk proteins have led to its widespread use in the fields of food, medicine, and cosmetics. Various extraction methods have been reported to obtain the proteins from egg yolk, however, their utilization is limited due to the relatively low extraction efficiency and/or toxic solvents involved. Several simpler and greener technologies, especially physical fields (ultrasound), have been successfully developed to improve the extraction efficiency. The egg yolk proteins may exert multiple biological activities, enabling them to be a promising tool in improve human health and wellbeing, such as anti-obesity, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-osteoporosis, diagnosis and therapy for SARS-CoV-2 infections. This article summarizes the novel extraction technologies and latest applications of the egg yolk proteins in the recent 5 years, which should stimulate their utilization as health-promoting functional ingredients in foods and other commercial products.

High internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by egg yolk low density lipoprotein for delivery of curcumin

Egg yolk low density lipoprotein (LDL) was used to prepare high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPEs) and its role as a stabilizer was comprehensively studied in this work. LDL exists as homogenous nanoparticles with an average size of 49 nm and amphiphilic nature, having a contact angle close to 90°. HIPEs were studied by varying compositions of 75%-90% oil phase and 25%-10% aqueous phase containing 0.5%-2% LDL. Rheological measurement, confocal laser scanning and optical microscopes imaging together with digital photos revealed the solid gel network, the strength of which was dependent upon oil volume fraction and LDL concentration. Optimal formulation of HIPEs was found as 80% oil and 2% LDL concentration, which exhibited small droplets under 10 µm with negligible aggregations, even after four weeks storage under refrigeration or heating at 90 ℃ for 30 min. After three freeze-thawing cycles, the HIPEs were demulsified losing their gel structure, but a simple re-homogenization was able to reconstitute the gel network identical to original microstructure. Encapsulation of curcumin into Pickering HIPEs provided exceptional photostability (around 80% retention rate) against ultraviolet radiation and improved its bioaccessibility from 10% to 50% during in vitro digestion. Our findings may bring new opportunities to design semi-solid foods using natural and edible ingredients.

Ultrasound-assisted pH-shifting remodels egg-yolk low-density lipoprotein to enable construction of a stable aqueous solution of vitamin D3

Egg-yolk low-density lipoprotein (LDL) has a natural liposome structure. Using ultrasound-assisted pH-shifting (pH 12), a naturally safe and stable aqueous solution of vitamin D₃ (VD₃) was constructed employing LDL as the carrier. Images from electron microscopy showed that pH-shifting remodeled LDL molecules, resulting in a dramatic reduction in particle size (∼50%) and an increase in specific surface area, which reduced the turbidity (27.7%) and provided new interfaces for VD₃ loading. Fluorescence analyses showed that the binding of VD₃ to LDL under pH-shifting was strong, involved quenching, and the binding constant was 6.19 × 10⁴ M⁻¹. Thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy showed that pH-shifting hydrolyzed the esters in LDL to fatty acid salts, and the maximum weight loss of LDL occurred from 381.9 °C to 457.0 °C. Ultrasonic treatment enhanced the binding of LDL and VD₃ (binding constant increased to 2.56 × 10⁷ M⁻¹), reduced the particle size, and increased the ζ-potential of the complex between LDL and VD₃, thereby resulting in the improvement of solution stability and storage stability of VD₃. Ultrasound-assisted pH-shifting could remodel LDL to construct a stable aqueous solution of VD₃, which showed the potential of LDL as a carrier for lipid-soluble components.

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pH-shifting remodels LDL and results in a reduction in particle size.

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Under pH-shifting, VD₃ was bound stably to LDL with strong affinity.

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pH-shifting remodeled LDL can be used to encapsulate active ingredients.

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The binding of VD₃ to LDL was enhanced by ultrasonic treatment.

Crystalline polysaccharides: A review

The biodegradability and mechanical properties of polysaccharides are dependent on their architecture (linear or branched) as well as their crystallinity (size of crystals and crystallinity percent). The amount of crystalline zones in the polysaccharide significantly governs their ultimate properties and applications (from packaging to biomedicine). Although synthesis, characterization, and properties of polysaccharides have been the subject of several review papers, the effects of crystallization kinetics and crystalline domains on the properties and application have not been comprehensively addressed. This review places focus on different aspects of crystallization of polysaccharides as well as applications of crystalline polysaccharides. Crystallization of cellulose, chitin, chitosan, and starch, as the main members of this family, were discussed. Then, application of the aforementioned crystalline polysaccharides and nano-polysaccharides as well as their physical and chemical interactions were overviewed. This review attempts to provide a complete picture of crystallization-property relationship in polysaccharides.

Recent Advances in Applications of Bioactive Egg Compounds in Nonfood Sectors

Egg, a highly nutritious food, contains high-quality proteins, vitamins, and minerals. This food has been reported for its potential pharmacological properties, including antibacterial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition, immunomodulatory effects, and use in tissue engineering applications. The significance of eggs and their components in disease prevention and treatment is worth more attention. Eggs not only have been known as a "functional food" to combat diseases and facilitate the promotion of optimal health, but also have numerous industrial applications. The current review focuses on different perceptions and non-food applications of eggs, including cosmetics. The versatility of eggs from an industrial perspective makes them a potential candidate for further exploration of several novel components.

Chemical synthesis of polysaccharide-protein and polysaccharide-peptide conjugates: A review

Polysaccharides are abundant natural polymers, which in nature are at times covalently modified with peptides and proteins. Polysaccharide-protein or polysaccharide-peptide conjugates, natural or otherwise, may have increased solubility, improved emulsion properties, prolonged circulation time, reduced immunogenicity, and enhanced selectivity for targeting specific tissues compared to native peptides and proteins. In this paper, we will review recent advances in synthetic methods for producing polysaccharide-protein conjugates and discuss their advantages with a focus on drug targeting.

Nano Spray-Dried Drugs for Oral Administration: A Review

Spray drying is an important technology that is fast, simple, reproducible, and scalable. It has a wide application range, that is, in food, chemicals, and encapsulation of pharmaceuticals. The technology can be divided into conventional spray drying and nano spray drying. The key advantage of nano spray drying is the production of drug-loaded nanosized particles for various drug delivery applications. The recent developments in nano spray dryer technology and the market launch of the Nano Spray Dryer B-90 by Büchi Labortechnik AG in 2009 enabled the production of submicron spray-dried particles. This review focuses on nanosized drug delivery systems intended for oral administration produced by nano spray drying. First, the nano spray drying concept, the basic technologies implemented in the equipment, and the effects of the various process parameters on the final dry submicron powder properties are presented. Then, the topics of new formulation strategies of oral drugs are highlighted with examples that have entered the research literature in recent years. Next, the subjects of direct conversion of poorly water-soluble drugs, encapsulation of drugs, and drying of preformed nanoparticles are considered. Finally, topics such as morphology, particle size, size distribution, surface analysis, bioavailability, drug release, release kinetics, and solid-state characterization (by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance) of oral drug delivery systems produced by nano spray drying are discussed. The review attempts to provide a comprehensive knowledge base with current literature and foresight to researchers working in the field of pharmaceutical technology and nanotechnology and especially in the field of nano spray drying.

Construction of carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan/chitosan complex nanogels as potential delivery vehicles for curcumin

Construction of nanoscale delivery systems from natural food biopolymer complexes have attracted increasing interests in the fields of food industries. In this study, novel carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan/ chitosan (CMKGM/CS) nanogels with and without 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) /N-hydroxysuccinimide) (EDC/NHS)-initiated crosslinking were prepared. The physicochemical and structural properties of the CMKGM/CS nanogels and their potential to be a delivery vehicle for curcumin were investigated. Compared to original uncrosslinked nanogels, crosslinking did not alter particle size and morphology but decreased zeta potential of nanogels. Fourier transform infrared spectrum confirmed that the amide linkage was formed between CMKGM and CS, which obviously enhanced the stability of crosslinked nanogels under gastrointestinal conditions. Furthermore, the crosslinked nanogels not only had higher encapsulation efficiency of curcumin but also better sustained release behavior under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. These findings suggested that the crosslinked CMKGM/CS nanogels might be a promising delivery system for nutrients.

Gel properties and network structure of the hydrogel constructed by iota-carrageenan and Ala-Lys dipeptide

Gel properties of hydrogel-forming by Ala-Lys dipeptide (AK) and iota-carrageenan (ι-C) were investigated by rheological behavior, fourier transform infrared analysis, cryo-scanning electron microscopy, low field-NMR relaxometry and magnetic resonance imaging. Iota-carrageenan was changed from a liquid to a gel with the addition of AK, and the existence of AK significantly increased the storage modulus (G') of ι-C from 590.4 to 1077.8 Pa. In the ι-C/AK gel, the blue-shift of OH stretching and water deformation were observed, meanwhile, the presence of amide I band at 1682 cm^-1 was observed. The network of ι-C/AK gel showed a dense honeycomb structure with flocculating continuous phase and rough entanglement morphology. After adding AK, the water free in the pores of ι-C entered the ι-C/AK gel matrix, and the binding capacity of bound water was enhanced. These scenarios proved that the AK as the cationic dipeptide could control the conversion of negatively charged ι-C from an original random structure to a helical structure due to electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds. This study provides a new opportunity for the peptides into carbohydrate-based gel matrices, which could provide insights for the further application of ι-C/AK gels in the fields of food industry, tissue engineering and drug delivery.

Nanoemulsions for Enhancement of Curcumin Bioavailability and Their Safety Evaluation: Effect of Emulsifier Type

This work aimed at evaluating the effects of different emulsifiers on curcumin-loaded nanoemulsions’ behavior during digestion, its safety and absorption, to develop nanoemulsions that provide safety and improved curcumin functionality. Nanoemulsions (NEs) were produced using two bio-based (lecithin (LEC) and rhamnolipids (RHAM)) and one synthetic (Tween^®80 (TWE)) emulsifier at similar concentrations. Different NEs were subjected to in vitro digestion. The cytotoxicity and permeability tests were performed in Caco-2 cells. NE_TWE were stable during all phases of in vitro digestion, whereas NE_LEC and NE_RHAM were found to be unstable from the gastric phase. NE_TWE showed 100% of free fatty acids released, followed by NE_RHAM and NE_LEC. Curcumin’s bioaccessibility and stability increased in the following order: NE_LEC > NE_RHAM > NE_TWE. NE_LEC and NE_TWE did not show cytotoxic effects in any of the concentrations tested, while NE_RHAM presented high cytotoxicity in all concentrations tested. The apparent permeability coefficients were determined for NE_LEC and NE_TWE; however, the results were not statistically different. These results showed that the emulsifier used has a high impact on nanoemulsions’ behavior under the digestion process and on their cytotoxicity. This work contributed to the state-of-the-art’s progress on the development of safer curcumin delivery systems with improved functionality, particularly regarding the proper selection of ingredients to produce said systems.

Encapsulation of Phloretin in a Ternary Nanocomplex Prepared with Phytoglycogen-Caseinate-Pectin via Electrostatic Interactions and Chemical Cross-Linking

In this study, we chemically modified a phytoglycogen structure to introduce negative surface charge via carboxymethylation (CMPG) and then prepared CMPG-based ternary nanocomplex particles through electrostatic interactions with sodium caseinate (core) and chemical cross-linking with pectin (shell). The chemical cross-linking process by glutaradehyde was systematically optimized under various temperatures and durations. The cross-linked ternary nanocomplex was comprehensively characterized, and our results showed that it had a size of 86 nm with a spherical shape, smooth surface, homogeneous distribution, and negative surface charge. The chemical cross-linking process significantly improved colloidal stability of the nanocomplex under simulated gastrointestinal fluids with digestive enzymes. The as-prepared nanocomplex exhibited exceptional capability to encapsulate phloretin, a natural dihydrochalcone, as a model lipophilic bioactive compound. The nanocomplex not only showed a slow and sustained kinetic release of phloretin under simulated gastrointestinal fluids but also dramatically enhanced its antioxidant activity under an aqueous environment compared to pure phloretin dissolved in ethanol. Findings from this work revealed the promising features of the as-prepared ternary nanocomplex as a potential oral delivery system for lipophilic bioactive compounds.

Advancement in nanogel formulations provides controlled drug release

Nanogels are currently considered as promising nanosized drug delivery carriers. Nanogels are made of a crosslinked polymeric network which could encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs due to their tunable nature. The ability of nanogels to control drug release is vastly described in the literature and researchers are consistently improving the control of drug release from nanogel by designing new polymers having specific sensitivity to a chemical or physical stimulus. In this review, we briefly discuss the definition of nanogels, their release profiles, their specific gel-based characteristics and the pathways of dug release from nanogels. We have focused on the stimuli responsive nanogels and their release profile. This compilation opens the window for understanding the influence of chemical composition and design of various nanogel on their release in the presence and absence of corresponding stimuli such as temperature, pH, enzymes and others. The uniqueness of this review is that it highlights the data of release profiles in terms of the different nanogel composition and triggers. It also points the high potential of nanogels in the list of candidates for drug delivery systems, thanks to their properties regarding drug encapsulation and release, combined advantages of nano-size and swelling characteristics of hydrogel.