A review of microencapsulation methods for food antioxidants: Principles, advantages, drawbacks and applications

Evaluation of color photostability and structure of thylakoids in isolation and after undergoing food processing treatments

Improving the photostability of natural chlorophyll remains a substantial challenge for its application in the food industry. Thylakoids in chloroplasts are pouch-like compartments contain over 90 % of total chlorophyll. In this study, the color photostability of thylakoids were evaluated. Accelerated photodegradation experiments were conducted at 5 °C under an intense illumination model (15,000 lm). Thylakoids exhibited a green retention rate of 79.2 % after five days of illumination, comparable to sodium copper chlorophyllin (78.1 %), a commonly used synthetic chlorophyll derivative. The light-harvesting complex (LHC) proteins, situated in the thylakoid membranes, are regions abundant in chlorophyll. Results of electrophoresis and TEM analysis indicate that both the LHC proteins and the overall structure of thylakoids may contribute to the color photostability of thylakoids. We further evaluated if common food processing treatments changed the subsequent photostability of thylakoids and their structure. The results showed that heating, acidification, and freezing led to a loss of photostability, which appeared to positively associate with the damage to the thylakoid structure, as shown in TEM images. In contrast, storage at 25 °C for 30 days and high-pressure processing (HPP) up to 1400 MPa showed minimal effects on the thylakoid structure and their photostability. Our study highlights the potential of thylakoids as a photostable green colorant in neutral foods that have undergone cold sterilization treatments.

Microencapsulation of sacha inchi oil using tannic acid, yeast cells and xanthan gum as wall materials

This study investigated the encapsulation of sacha inchi oil using complex coacervation of recovered yeast cells and xanthan gum via double emulsion. Turbidimetric analysis revealed interactions between yeast cells (YC) and tannic acid (TA), which increased turbidity to a 1:3 YC:XG ratio suggesting that TA could be a promising crosslinking agent for enhancing coacervation. Optimal encapsulation efficiency was achieved at a core-to-wall ratio of 1:1 in a core solution concentration of 1 % relative to the total polymer concentration. Under these conditions, the microparticles exhibited an average particle size of 72.44 ± 1.83 μm, with low water activity and water solubility. Morphological analysis suggests that the microcapsules showed a heterogeneous structure formed by different layers of wall material, potentially making them suitable for use in food matrices. The use of TA to form TA-YC:XG microcapsules improved the oxidative stability (39.84 ± 0.43 meqO2/kg of peroxide value after six simulated months) of the microcapsules and slowed down oil release (approximately 20 % in simulated gastric fluid) during the in vitro digestion test. These finds highlight the potential of microencapsulation using recovered yeast cells as a strategy to enhance encapsulation efficiency and protect against oxidation and digestion challenges. This approach opens new possibilities for the use of sacha inchi oil as a food ingredient.

Bionanocomposite of Dual Antioxidant and Protease Function by Co-Immobilization of Tannic Acid and Papain on Anionic Clays

The synchronized operation of antioxidants and enzymes is necessary for the proper functioning of living organisms and various industrial processes. The drawback that these biomolecules are susceptible to several environmental factors can be overcome by their immobilization on appropriate host materials. Here, molecular antioxidant tannic acid (TA) and papain enzyme (PPN) were co-immobilized on layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanoparticles to enhance their stability and facilitate their combined function. In the sequential adsorption method governed by electrostatic interactions, TA was first adsorbed on oppositely charged LDH (LDH/TA) and then, PPN was immobilized on the surface of the nanoparticles (LDH/TA/PPN). The optimal TA and PPN doses were determined by systematic size and charge measurements of the particles in dispersions to obtain stable colloids in each preparation step. The co-immobilization of the biomolecules was confirmed by spectroscopy methods. The resulting LDH/TA/PPN nanocomposite exhibited remarkable antioxidant and protease activities. The dual biological function together with the considerable colloidal stability make the LDH/TA/PPN material a promising candidate in various processes in academia and more applied disciplines, where simultaneous antioxidant and proteolytic functions are desired.

Microencapsulation of Pickering nanoemulsions containing walnut oil stabilized using soy protein-curcumin composite nanoparticles: Fabrication and evaluation of a novel plant-based milk substitute

Plant protein-stabilized Pickering nanoemulsions show potential as plant-based milk substitutes; however, their stability is challenged by mechanical stress during transportation and oxidative deterioration during storage. Herein, soybean isolate protein-curcumin composite nanoparticle (SPI-Cur-NPs)-stabilized Pickering nanoemulsions were converted into microcapsule powders via spray-drying with maltodextrin (MD), trehalose anhydrous (TA), and inulin (IN) as wall materials. Robust intermolecular hydrogen bonds and an amorphous structure were formed using composite wall materials, reducing microcapsule surface fissures while improving encapsulation rate (92.7 %) and solubility (>95 %). Moisture sorption isotherms indicated that the composite wall microcapsules demonstrated moisture resistance at a low-water activity (aw < 0.43) and superior hygroscopicity at a high-water activity (aw > 0.67). Accelerated oxidation tests revealed that the presence of curcumin and composite wall materials enhanced oxidative stability, demonstrating a low peroxide value (2.21 mmol/kg [34.4 %]) and TBARS content (97.8 μg/g [18.7 %]). Consequently, microencapsulated powders prepared with SPI-Cur-NPs and MD-TA-IN could potentially improve the limitation of plant-based milk substitutes.

A superior binary matrix of maltodextrin and whey protein concentrate for chia seed oil encapsulation through freeze-drying

The present study was designed to evaluate and compare the efficiency of two wall material (WM) matrices-maltodextrin (MD) and gum Arabic (GA) in combination with whey protein concentrate (WPC) for encapsulating chia seed oil (CSO). RSM, a robust and widely recognized optimization tool, was employed to optimize independent parameters: WM ratio (MD-WPC or GA-WPC) (0 to 100%), homogenization pressure (69-207 MPa), and oil content (6-10%). A modified rotatable central composite design with replicated factorial points ensured non-fractional factor levels to study variable interactions on encapsulation efficiency (EE) and α-Linolenic acid (ALA) retention. Optimized CSO microcapsule [OCSO I (MD-WPC)] exhibited EE (81.23%), higher ALA (61.85%) and Ω-3: Ω-6 ratio (3.44) than OCSO II (GA-WPC) under the same optimized conditions. The optimal conditions were; MD/GA:WPC ratio (25%), pressure (172.5 MPa), and oil content (9%). Microcapsule OCSO I demonstrated superior oxidative stability with a significantly (p < 0.05) longer shelf life (24-26 days) compared to OCSO II (16-18 days) and achieved significantly (p < 0.05) higher CSO delivery in the intestinal phase. FTIR analysis confirmed encapsulation integrity, showing low or no peaks associated with free CSO. These findings provide valuable insights for the industry in selecting innovative, economical, and effective WMs for encapsulating bioactive CSO.

Encapsulated essential oils in protein-polysaccharide biopolymers: characteristics and applications in the biomedical and food industries

The application of essential oils in the biomedical and food industries has sparked considerable interest, owing to their innate biological activities, multifaceted functional properties, and potential health benefits. Besides, their volatile nature and sensitivity to environmental factors pose challenges to their stability and efficacy in industrial applications. Recent literature indicates that encapsulation within natural biopolymers is an effective strategy for enhancing the functionality and application potential of essential oils. Thus, this review discusses the common proteins and polysaccharides utilized for encapsulation, the techniques employed for encapsulating essential oils, and the biological properties of essential oils encapsulated in protein-polysaccharide biopolymers, along with their applications in the biomedical and food industries. In general, this review provides valuable insights for researchers, underscoring the importance of these research domains in further enhancing the functional properties and industrial applications of encapsulated essential oils.

Encapsulation of Zootechnical Additives for Poultry and Swine Feeding: A Systematic Review

The search for alternatives to certain antibiotics in animal nutrition has propelled the study of encapsulated essential oils and organic acids considering their potential to generate beneficial effects in animal organisms. The objective of this study was to compile and discuss scientific findings published between 2013 and July 2024 from two databases related to the usage of encapsulated essential oils and organic acids in the supplementation of poultry and swine feeds. A systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) methodology, covering the PubMed and Web of Science databases, which initially yielded 115 selected articles. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 relevant articles were selected for comprehensive analysis. The studies demonstrate that the encapsulation of essential oils and organic acids is an alternative to reduce the utilization of conventional antibiotics, as encapsulation has the potential to maintain the properties of these compounds while ensuring greater stability and controlled release within the animal organism. The selection of appropriate encapsulation technologies, encapsulating agents, and zootechnical additives is crucial to maximizing the effectiveness of these compounds in animal nutrition. Despite the identification of gaps in the analyzed studies regarding specific details of the techniques used and regulatory considerations, encapsulated essential oils and organic acids show potential to reduce the need for antibiotics in animal production along with other added benefits. This Review provides a comprehensive overview of the subject, aiming to guide and contribute to future research efforts.

Microcapsule Techniques to Emphasize Functional Plant Oil Quality and Their Applications in the Food Industry: A Review

Natural functional plant oils (FPOs) have been widely exploited due to their abundant biological activities. However, when exposed to oxygen, light, moisture, and heat, some limitations such as oxidative deterioration, impaired flavor, loss of nutritional value and volatile compounds, and decreased shelf life hinder the widespread application of FPOs in the food industry. Notably, the microencapsulation technique is one of the advanced technologies, which has been used to maintain the biological and physicochemical properties of FPOs. The present review provided a comprehensive overview of the nutrient compositions and functionality of FPOs, preparation techniques for microcapsules, and applications of microencapsulated FPOs (MFPOs) in the food industry. FPOs obtained from a wide range of sources were abundant in bioactive compounds and possessed disease risk mitigation and improved human health properties. The preparation methods of microencapsulation technology included physical, chemical, and physicochemical methods, which had the ability to enhance oxidative stability, functional, shelf life, and thermostability properties of FPOs. In this context, MFPOs had been applied as a fortification in sausage, meat, bakery, and flour products. Overall, this work will provide information for academic fields and industries the further exploration of food and nutriment products.

Valorization of Onion By-Products Bioactive Compounds by Spray Drying Encapsulation Technique

The increasing interest in sustainability has driven research into the utilization of food by-products. Onion by-products, rich in bioactive compounds, represent a valuable resource for developing functional ingredients; however, they are prone to degradation due to environmental factors such as light, heat, and oxygen, leading to reduced efficacy and increased spoilage. Microencapsulation represents an effective approach to meet important goals in the formulation of food products such as the protection against degradation or the control of interactions with other ingredients that may modify and impair their functionality. This study explores the microencapsulation of flavonoid-rich onion by-product extract through spray drying, employing various wall materials (maltodextrin and a mixture of maltodextrin/trehalose and maltodextrin/trehalose/inulin) and their effect on the chemical and physical properties of the powders such as encapsulation efficiency, total flavonoids content, moisture content, water activity, bulk density, and bulk tapped density. The storage stability was further evaluated. This research supports waste reduction and suggests strategies for developing functional ingredients with extended shelf life and controlled release properties.

Trolox derivatives: Synthesis, structure-activity relationship and promote wound healing by regulating oxidative stress and inflammation

To find new antioxidants, 13 Trolox amides (2a-2m) and 7 Trolox esters (3a-3g) were synthesized and evaluated for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Compounds 2e, 2i, 3b and 3d showed potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, amongst them, 3d demonstrated the most photoprotective effects on UVB-irradiated human skin keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells (IC50 = 5.13 µM) through efficiently scavenging free radicals and dose-dependently reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis generation, as well as effectively promoting wound healing. 3d protected HaCaT cells against oxidative stress, inflammation and cellular damage by the activation of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling and inhibition of NF-κB pathway, further significantly improving wound healing. In acute UVB-induced skin injury mouse model, 3d significantly reduced the level of pro-inflammatory factors, improved the effect of UVB radiation on the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and maintained normal metabolic capacity. In conclusion, 3d may be a potential candidate for developing cosmetics with UVB protective effect.

Recent updates of carotenoid encapsulation by spray-drying technique

Carotenoids are compounds sensitive to environmental factors such as light, heat, and oxygen, which can result in the loss of their properties due to isomerisation and oxidation. To overcome this problem, spray drying encapsulation has been widely used as a method to protect and stabilise carotenoids in different wall materials. This article summarises the findings and research on spray drying encapsulation of carotenoids over the past 15 years, with an emphasis on the importance of controlling the operational conditions of the drying process and the association of different wall materials (proteins and polysaccharides), promising to increase encapsulation efficiency and stabilise carotenoids, with perspectives and trends in applications. The use of spray drying for carotenoid microencapsulation can open up new opportunities for controlled delivery of beneficial compounds. Based on the study, it is expected to provide information for researchers, professionals, and companies interested in the development of functional food products.

Improving stabilization of α-tocopherol and α-tocopheryl acetate against oxidation, light and UV radiation by complexation with β-cyclodextrin and starch

Despite the remarkably high antioxidant activity of tocopherols, their applications in the food industry are limited because of their instability under various conditions. Complexes of α-tocopherol (α-TQ) or α-tocopheryl acetate (α-TQA) with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) or starch were prepared and characterized by UV-vis, IR and thermal analysis. Oxidative stability of α-TQ and α-TQA against H2O2 was 74.7 and 88.8% respectively (576 h). However, stability increased to 82.9 and 100% for β-CD and 99.2 and 99.4% for starch complexes respectively, which indicates that starch is an excellent stabilizing host in addition to being an economic material. Stability of α-TQ and α-TQA under light conditions was dependent on their physical state; it was 55.3 and 82.9% (oil) but stability was lowered to 19.4 and 76.5% in solution (2.21 mM). In addition, exposure to UV irradiation decreased their stability to 39.2 and 85.0% as oil and 61.2 and 89.1% in solution respectively. However, the stability of all complexes remained > 99.0% under light and UV conditions. Accordingly, α-TQ, the natural and biologically active form, can be used as complex rather than α-TQA often used because of its higher stability. Docking revealed that both forms fit in β-CD with the side chain taking "U" conformation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-024-06011-2.

Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Arthritis Activity of Quercetin: A Comprehensive Review

This comprehensive exploration delves into the multifaceted attributes of quercetin, a flavonoid with extensive health-promoting potential. The review navigates through its fundamental properties, encompassing its chemical structure, classification as a flavonoid, and its natural prevalence in various sources. Addressing solubility, stability, and bioavailability challenges, the investigation delves into innovative isolation techniques, including solvent extraction, solid-phase extraction, natural deep eutectic solvents, supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, column chromatography, and high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Transitioning into pharmacological implications, the study unveils quercetin's roles in anti-inflammatory pathways, antioxidant effects, and immune modulation, reflecting its versatile significance in health management. The review highlights its impact on wound healing processes and its potential to mitigate arthritis, elucidating its holistic contributions. Culminating in an exploration of recent studies, the analysis underscores quercetin's remarkable anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritis activities, reflecting its substantial potential across various ailments. The review concludes by projecting future trajectories, emphasizing prospects for an advanced understanding of quercetin's mechanisms, sustainable extraction techniques, clinical integration, and exploration of synergistic combinations. Collectively, this review investigation underscores quercetin's dynamic role at the intersection of natural compounds and medicinal applications, offering profound implications for well- being and health enhancement.

Encapsulation of Saccharomyces spp. for Use as Probiotic in Food and Feed: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Probiotics, particularly yeasts from the genus Saccharomyces, are valuable for their health benefits and potential as antibiotic alternatives. To be effective, these microorganisms must withstand harsh environmental conditions, necessitating advanced protective technologies such as encapsulation to maintain probiotic viability during processing, storage, and passage through the digestive system. This review and meta-analysis aims to describe and compare methods and agents used for encapsulating Saccharomyces spp., examining operating conditions, yeast origins, and species. It provides an overview of the literature on the health benefits of nutritional yeast consumption. A bibliographic survey was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The meta-analysis compared encapsulation methods regarding their viability after encapsulation and exposure to the gastrointestinal tract. Nineteen studies were selected after applying inclusion/exclusion criteria. Freeze drying was found to be the most efficient for cell survival, while ionic gelation was best for maintaining viability after exposure to the gastrointestinal tract. Consequently, the combination of freeze drying and ionic gelation proved most effective in maintaining high cell viability during encapsulation, storage, and consumption. Research on probiotics for human food and animal feed indicates that combining freeze drying and ionic gelation effectively protects Saccharomyces spp.; however, industrial scalability must be considered. Reports on yeast encapsulation using agro-industrial residues as encapsulants offer promising strategies for preserving potential probiotic yeasts, contributing to the environmental sustainability of industrial processes.

Encapsulation of sunflower and flaxseed oils using Opuntia (Cactaceae) mucilage as a core-shell material through coacervation methods: A study on formulation, characterization, and in vitro digestion

Sunflower oil (SFO) and Flaxseed oil (FSO) were microencapsulated using simple and complex coacervation techniques with Opuntia (Cactaceae) mucilage (Mu) and with a combination of Mu with chitosan (Chit). The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of SFO and FSO in emulsions using Mu/Chit shells was 96.7% and 97.4%, respectively. Morphological studies indicated successful entrapment of oils in core shells with particle sizes ranging from 1396 ± 42.4 to 399.8 ± 42.3 nm. The thermogravimetric analyses demonstrated enhanced core protection with thermal stability noted for microcapsules regardless of encapsulation method. The stability of the microcapsules, during in vitro digestion was studied. The obtained results revealed that the microcapsules are intact in oral conditions and have a slow release of oil over stomach digestion and rapid release in the small intestine. The results showed that Mu and Mu/Chit coacervates can be used as effective carrier systems to encapsulate sensitive ingredients and functional oils.

Microencapsulation of Essential Oils and Oleoresins: Applications in Food Products

Essential oils (EOs) and oleoresins (ORs) are plant-derived extracts that contain both volatile and non-volatile compounds used for flavoring, coloring, and preservation. In the food industry, they are increasingly used to replace synthetic additives, aligning with consumer demand for natural ingredients, by substituting artificial flavors, colorants, and preservatives. Microcapsules can be added to a vast range of foods and beverages, including bakery products, candies, meat products, and sauces, as well as active food packages. However, incorporating EOs and ORs into foods and beverages can be difficult due to their hydrophobic nature and poor stability when exposed to light, oxygen, moisture, and temperature. Microencapsulation techniques address these challenges by enhancing their stability during storage, protecting sensitive molecules from reacting in the food matrix, providing controlled release of the core ingredient, and improving dispersion in the medium. There is a lack of articles that research, develop, and optimize formulations of microencapsulated EOs and ORs to be incorporated into food products. Microencapsulated ORs are overlooked by the food industry, whilst presenting great potential as natural and more stable alternatives to synthetic flavors, colorants, and preservatives than the pure extract. This review explores the more common microencapsulation methods of EOs and ORs employed in the food industry, with spray drying being the most widely used at an industrial scale. New emerging techniques are explored, with a special focus on spray drying-based technologies. Categories of wall materials and encapsulated ingredients are presented, and their applications in the food and beverage industry are listed.

Microencapsulation of natural products using spray drying; an overview

AIMS

This study examines microencapsulation as a method to enhance the stability of natural compounds, which typically suffer from inherent instability under environmental conditions, aiming to extend their application in the pharmaceutical industry.

METHODS

We explore and compare various microencapsulation techniques, including spray drying, freeze drying, and coacervation, with a focus on spray drying due to its noted advantages.

RESULTS

The analysis reveals that microencapsulation, especially via spray drying, significantly improves natural compounds' stability, offering varied morphologies, sizes, and efficiencies in encapsulation. These advancements facilitate controlled release, taste modification, protection from degradation, and extended shelf life of pharmaceutical products.

CONCLUSION

Microencapsulation, particularly through spray drying, presents a viable solution to the instability of natural compounds, broadening their application in pharmaceuticals by enhancing protection and shelf life.

Recent advances in microalgae encapsulation techniques for biomedical applications

Microalgae are microorganisms that are rich in bioactive compounds, including pigments, proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. These compounds can be utilized for a number of biomedical purposes, including drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering. Nevertheless, encapsulating microalgae cells and microalgae bioactive metabolites is vital to protect them and prevent premature degradation. This also enables the development of intelligent controlled release strategies for the bioactive compounds. This review outlines the most employed encapsulation techniques for microalgae, with a particular focus on their biomedical applications. These include ionic gelation, oil-in-water emulsions, and spray drying. Such techniques have been widely explored, due to their ability to protect sensitive compounds from degradation, enhance their stability, extend their shelf life, mask undesirable tastes or odours, control the release of bioactive compounds, and enable targeted delivery to specific sites within the body or environment. Moreover, a patent landscape analysis is also provided, allowing an overview of the microalgae encapsulation technology development applied to a variety of fields, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and agriculture.

Alginate Capsules: Versatile Applications and Production Techniques

Alginate is a natural polysaccharide commonly obtained from brown algae and is usually used in the food industry as an additive, specifically as a thickening, gelling, and emulsifying agent. Due to its polyanionic nature, it can crosslink in the presence of divalent or trivalent cations. This crosslinking process involves the formation of chemical bonds between the carboxylic groups of parallel chains, resulting in a solid structure. In this way, compounds of interest can be enclosed in a capsule or a bead. Thanks to this ability, possible applications of alginate capsules are countless: it is possible to range from the pharmaceutical to the nutritional fields, from the agri-food industry to the textile or cosmetic sectors. These capsules can protect the encapsulated ingredients, promote their delivery or controlled release, or be imagined as small-scale reactors. The present review describes the main techniques used to produce alginate capsules, and several examples of possible application fields are shown.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum encapsulated by chitosan-alginate and soy protein isolate-reducing sugars conjugate for enhanced viability

To investigate the protective effects of various wall materials on probiotics, two types of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 90 (Lp90) microcapsules were prepared using sodium alginate and chitosan (Lp-AC), soy protein isolate (SPI) and reducing sugars conjugate (Lp -MRP) as wall materials, respectively. The physical properties, cell viability under different conditions and the application of the microcapsules were investigated. Results showed that the selected wall materials were safe to Lp90 and their simulated digestion products exhibited antioxidant activities and prebiotic properties. The encapsulation efficiencies of Lp-AC and Lp-MRP were above 80 %. Both microcapsules significantly enhanced cell survival rates under various conditions including low pH, bile salts, thermal processing, mechanical force, storage, and gastrointestinal digestion, with Lp-MRP demonstrating superior protective effects. When incorporated into milk and orange juice and stored at 4 °C for 28 d, the colony counts of beverages containing Lp90 microcapsules exceeded 6 Log CFU/mL, with minimal changes in total soluble solids. Lp-MRP exhibited higher cell viability and smaller viscosity changes at 25 °C for 28 d. Therefore, the single-layer encapsulation using SPI and reducing sugars conjugate showed promise over traditional chitosan-alginate double-layer encapsulation concerning probiotic protection, targeted delivery, and application.

Hurdle technology using enzymes and essential oil to remove biofilm and increase the effectiveness of this process with the microencapsulation method

The formation of biofilm in different places and the failure to effectively remove it by the usual disinfection methods is due to its structure and the rich genetic resource available in it to deal with disinfectants. These impenetrable structures and diverse microbial genetics have caused biofilm pollution in different industries like the food industry, the medicine industry, the hospitals and the water distribution system, resulting in pathogenicity and reduction of industrial quality. An efficient way to deal with the resistant population of biofilm-forming microbes is the use of hurdle technology including enzymes and essential oils. Enzymes reduce the resistance of the biofilm structure due to degradation of its extracellular polymer matrix (EPS) by their abilities to break down the organic molecules, and then the essential oils weaken the cells by penetrating the lipid membrane of the cell and destroying its integrity; as a result, the biofilm will be destroyed. The advantage of this hurdle technology is the environmental friendly of both methods, which reduces concerns about the use of chemical disinfection methods, but on the other hand, due to the sensitivity of enzymes as biological agents also the expensiveness of this technique and the considerations of working with essential oils as volatile and unstable liquids should abandon the routine methods of applying this disinfectant to biofilm and go for the microencapsulation method, which as a protective system increases the effectiveness of enzymes and essential oils as antibiofilm agents.

Impact of Microencapsulation on Ocimum gratissimum L. Essential Oil: Antimicrobial, Antioxidant Activities, and Chemical Composition

Ocimum gratissimum (OG) is a species rich in essential oils (EO), which is known for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. This study aimed to encapsulate the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum (OGE), determine its chemical composition, and evaluate its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities against six pathogenic bacteria, comparing it with the free essential oil (OGF). The EO was extracted by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus, and an oil-in-water emulsion was prepared using a combination of biopolymers: maltodextrin (MA), cashew gum (CG), and inulin (IN). The chemical profile was identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Antioxidant activity was assessed using the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity with fluorescein (ORAC-FL) method, while the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentrations (MBC) were determined by the microdilution method. Microparticles were formed using the spray-drying method, achieving an encapsulation efficiency of 45.2%. The analysis identified eugenol as the main compound both before and after microencapsulation. The OGE microparticles demonstrated high inhibitory and bactericidal effects against S. aureus, S. choleraesuis, and E. coli, with MIC values of 500 µg·mL-1 and MBC values of 1000 µg·mL-1, as well as antioxidant activity of 1914.0 µmol-TE·g-1. Therefore, it can be inferred that the EO of OG maintained its antimicrobial and antioxidant effects even after microencapsulation by spray-drying, making it a promising natural ingredient.

Hazelnut Protein and Sodium Alginate Complex Coacervates: An Effective Tool for the Encapsulation of the Hydrophobic Polyphenol Quercetin

For valorization purposes of hazelnut byproducts, complex coacervation of hazelnut protein isolate (HPI) with sodium alginate (NaAlg) was investigated by turbidimetric analysis and zeta potential determination as a function of pH and protein/alginate mixing ratio. HPI-NaAlg complex coacervates were used as an encapsulating material of quercetin (QE) at different concentrations. The optimal pH and mixing ratio resulting in the highest turbidity and neutral charge were 3.5 and 6:1, respectively. The coacervation yield was 74.9% in empty capsules and up to 90.0% in the presence of QE. Under optimal conditions, HPI-NaAlg complex coacervates achieved an encapsulation efficiency higher than 99% in all coacervate/QE formulations. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results revealed the occurrence of electrostatic interactions between different functional groups within the ternary complex in addition to hydrogen and hydrophobic interactions between QE and HPI. HPI-NaAlg complex coacervates can serve as an alternative matrix for the microencapsulation of bioactive ingredients with low water solubility in food formulations, which adds an additional valorization of hazelnut byproducts.

Effects of the spray-drying process using maltodextrin on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of the pulp of the tropical fruit açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.)

Aҫai fruit is characterized by the properties of its bioactive compounds; however, this fruit is highly perishable and its compounds are sensitive when exposed to non-optimal environmental factors. Therefore, the objective of this study was to encapsulate the fruit pulp by spray drying to improve the nutritional value and extend the shelf life of the products derived from acai fruit. Maltodextrin was used as a wall material and the process was optimized to obtain the desirable values of the response variables. For this, a central compound design (CCD) was developed to determine the influence of temperature (110-170 °C) and the wall material proportion (5-15 %) on dependent variables: the retention of ascorbic acid, moisture percentage, hygroscopicity, solubility, water activity, and yield. Furthermore, the effects of spray drying on bioactive compounds (AA, TPC, TFC, TA, TCC, GA, CT, and QC) and antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC) were evaluated. The maximum design temperature (170 °C) and wall material proportion (15 %) significantly influenced the response variables where encapsulation was applied, with high ascorbic acid retention (96.886 %), low moisture (0.303 %), low hygroscopicity (7.279 g/100 g), low level of water activity (0.255), a water solubility index of 23.206 %, and a high yield of 70.285 %. The bioactive compounds analyzed and the antioxidant capacity presented significant retention values for AA (96.86 %), TPC (65.13 %), TFC (82.09 %), TA (62.46 %), TCC (7.28 %), GA (35.02 %), CT (49.03 %), QC (37.57 %), ABTS (81.24 %), DPPH (75.11 %), and ORAC (15.68 %). Therefore, it is concluded that the powder obtained under these conditions has desirable physical properties, and the drying process preserved a notable retention of bioactive compounds and their antioxidant activities.

Unveiling the mechanism of essential oil action against skin pathogens: from ancient wisdom to modern science

Essential oils are among the most well-known phyto-compounds, and since ancient times, they have been utilized in medicine. Over 100 essential oils have been identified and utilized as therapies for various skin infections and related ailments. While numerous commercial medicines are available in different dosage forms to treat skin diseases, the persisting issues include their side effects, toxicity, and low efficacy. As a result, researchers are seeking novel classes of compounds as substitutes for synthetic drugs, aiming for minimal side effects, no toxicity, and high efficacy. Essential oils have shown promising antimicrobial activity against skin-associated pathogens. This review presents essential knowledge and scientific information regarding essential oil's antimicrobial capabilities against microorganisms that cause skin infections. Essential oils mechanisms against different pathogens have also been explored. Many essential oils exhibit promising activity against various microbes, which has been qualitatively assessed using the agar disc diffusion experiment, followed by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration for quantitative evaluation. It has been observed that Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans have been extensively researched in the context of skin-related infections and their antimicrobial activity, including established modes of action. In contrast, other skin pathogens such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogens, Propionibacterium acnes, and Malassezia furfur have received less attention or neglected. This review report provides an updated understanding of the mechanisms of action of various essential oils with antimicrobial properties. This review explores the anti-infectious activity and mode of action of essential against distinct skin pathogens. Such knowledge can be valuable in treating skin infections and related ailments.

Enhancing antioxidant properties of lime juice powder through polyelectrolyte microparticles of chitosan-alginate: Formulation, characterization and stability study

Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) juice was reported to contain ascorbic acid (AA) and flavonoids, which has bioactivity as antioxidants. To develop an antioxidant product, improving its stability is necessary due to the perishable characteristics of compounds in lime. Therefore, the formulation of polyelectrolyte microparticles using chitosan and alginate was conducted to overcome the weaknesses. This study aims to evaluate the effect of various chitosan, alginate, and lime juice powder (LJP) concentrations on the physical characteristics and antioxidant activity of LJP encapsulated in chitosan-alginate microparticles (CALM). Microparticles with various concentrations of chitosan and alginate were prepared by ionic gelation method using CaCl2 as a crosslinker. The microparticles were evaluated for its physical properties and its antioxidant activity using 2-2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl reagent. A one-way ANOVA test and Tukey's honest significant difference post hoc were used to determine the effect of LJP amount on the antioxidant activity. The highest AA content in CALM was 0.14 mg/100 mg, with a % encapsulation efficiency of 18.38% ± 0.02%. Antioxidant activity tests revealed that LJP possessed the strong antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 32.59 μg/mL, whereas IC50 values of the microparticles ranged from 24.79 ± 0.03 μg/mL to 39.96 ± 0.07 μg/mL. During storage, the IC50 of LJP decreased from 32.59 ± 0.13 μg/mL to 65.53 ± 0.03 μg/mL, whereas the IC50 of microparticles remained stable. This study concluded that the chitosan-alginate polyelectrolyte microparticle formulation can improve and protect LJP's antioxidant activity.

Unveiling the multifaceted world of anthocyanins: Biosynthesis pathway, natural sources, extraction methods, copigmentation, encapsulation techniques, and future food applications

Numerous datasets regarding anthocyanins have been noted elsewhere. These previous studies emphasized that all processes must be carried out meticulously from the source used to obtain anthocyanins to their inclusion in relevant applications. However, today, full standardization has not yet been achieved for these processes. For this, presenting the latest developments regarding anthocyanins under one roof would be a useful approach to guide the scientific literature. The current review was designed to serve the stated points. In this context, their biosynthesis pathway was elaborated. Superior potential of fruits and certain by-products in obtaining anthocyanins was revealed compared to their other counterparts. Health-promoting benefits of anthocyanins were detailed. Also, the situation of innovative techniques (ultrasound-assisted extraction, subcritical water extraction, pulse electrical field extraction, and so on) in the anthocyanin extraction was explained. The stability issues, which is one of the most important problems limiting the use of anthocyanins in applications were discussed. The role of copigmentation and various encapsulation techniques in solving these stability problems was summarized. This critical review is a map that provides detailed information about the processes from obtaining anthocyanins, which stand out with their functional properties, to their incorporation into various systems.

The colorful fungi of the Chilean forests: Production, chemical characterization and possible applications of their pigments

In Chile, as in the rest of the world, only a small fraction of the fungal diversity inhabiting the wide variety of its ecosystems is known. This diversity must hide an inestimable richness of species with interesting biotechnological potential, including fungal pigment producers. Recently, interest in filamentous fungi has increased significantly due to their importance as alternative sources of pigments and colorants that are environmentally and human health friendly. As a result, fungal pigments are gaining importance in various industrial applications, such as food, textiles, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, etc. The increasing consumer demand for "green label" natural colorants requires the exploration of different ecosystems in search of new fungal species that are efficient producers of different pigment with a wide range of colors and ideally without the co-production of mycotoxins. However, advances are also needed in pigment production processes through fermentation, scale-up from laboratory to industrial scale, and final product formulation and marketing. In this respect, the journey is still full of challenges for scientists and entrepreneurs. This chapter describes studies on pigment-producing fungi collected in the forests of central-southern Chile. Aspects such as the exploration of potential candidates as sources of extracellular pigments, the optimization of pigment production by submerged fermentation, methods of pigment extraction and purification for subsequent chemical characterization, and formulation (by microencapsulation) for potential cosmetic applications are highlighted. This potential use is due to the outstanding bioactivity of most fungal pigments, making them interesting functional ingredients for many applications. Finally, the use of fungal pigments for textile and spalting applications is discussed.

Fabrication of polymeric microspheres for biomedical applications

Polymeric microspheres (PMs) have attracted great attention in the field of biomedicine in the last several decades due to their small particle size, special functionalities shown on the surface and high surface-to-volume ratio. However, how to fabricate PMs which can meet the clinical needs and transform laboratory achievements to industrial scale-up still remains a challenge. Therefore, advanced fabrication technologies are pursued. In this review, we summarize the technologies used to fabricate PMs, including emulsion-based methods, microfluidics, spray drying, coacervation, supercritical fluid and superhydrophobic surface-mediated method and their advantages and disadvantages. We also review the different structures, properties and functions of the PMs and their applications in the fields of drug delivery, cell encapsulation and expansion, scaffolds in tissue engineering, transcatheter arterial embolization and artificial cells. Moreover, we discuss existing challenges and future perspectives for advancing fabrication technologies and biomedical applications of PMs.

Lemongrass essential oil micro- and nanoencapsulation for industrial application: Production techniques and potential applications

Due to its characteristic aroma and diverse therapeutic properties, lemongrass essential oil (LEO) has garnered increased attention in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. However, LEO's volatile nature, low chemical stability, and limited solubility in water limits its applications in the industry. Micro- and nanoencapsulation technologies emerge as a promising solution to overcome these challenges. A systematic methodology involving keyword searches in databases was employed to gather relevant literature on LEO micro- and nanoencapsulation, providing an extensive overview of techniques, processes, encapsulating materials, and possible applications. Beyond established methods, emerging techniques were explored. This review highlights the critical role of encapsulation in enhancing the thermal and chemical stability, applicability, bioavailability, and controlled release of LEO.

Whey Protein Isolate as a Substrate to Design Calendula officinalis Flower Extract Controlled-Release Materials

The use of natural active substances and the development of new formulations are promising directions in the cosmetic and pharmacy industries. The primary purpose of this research was the production of microparticles based on whey protein isolate (WPI) and calcium alginate (ALG) containing Calendula officinalis flower extract and their incorporation into films composed of gelatin, WPI, and glycerol. Both swollen and dry microparticles were studied by optical microscopy and their sizes were measured. Water absorption by the microparticles, their loading capacity, and the release profile of flower extract were also characterized. The films were analyzed by mechanical tests (Young's modulus, tensile strength, elongation at break), swelling capacity, contact angle, and moisture content measurements. The presented data showed that the active ingredient was successfully enclosed in spherical microparticles and completely released after 75 min of incubation at 37 °C. The incorporation of the microparticles into polymer films caused a decrease in stiffness and tensile strength, simultaneously increasing the ductility of the samples. Moreover, the films containing microparticles displayed higher swelling ability and moisture content compared to those without them. Hence, the materials prepared in this study with Calendula officinalis flower extract encapsulated into polymeric microspheres can be a starting point for the development of new products intended for skin application; advantages include protection of the extract against external factors and a controlled release profile.

Research advances in Zein-based nano-delivery systems

Zein is the main vegetable protein from maize. In recent years, Zein has been widely used in pharmaceutical, agriculture, food, environmental protection, and other fields because it has excellent biocompatibility and biosafety. However, there is still a lack of systematic review and research on Zein-based nano-delivery systems. This paper systematically reviews preparation and modification methods of Zein-based nano-delivery systems, based on the basic properties of Zein. It discusses the preparation of Zein nanoparticles and the influencing factors in detail, as well as analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods and summarizing modification methods of Zein nanoparticles. This study provides a new idea for the research of Zein-based nano-delivery system and promotes its application.

Valorisation of Agri-Food Waste for Bioactive Compounds: Recent Trends and Future Sustainable Challenges

Worldwide, a massive amount of agriculture and food waste is a major threat to the environment, the economy and public health. However, these wastes are important sources of phytochemicals (bioactive), such as polyphenols, carotenoids, carnitine, coenzymes, essential oils and tocopherols, which have antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic properties. Hence, it represents a promising opportunity for the food, agriculture, cosmetics, textiles, energy and pharmaceutical industries to develop cost effective strategies. The value of agri-food wastes has been extracted from various valuable bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, dietary fibre, proteins, lipids, vitamins, carotenoids, organic acids, essential oils and minerals, some of which are found in greater quantities in the discarded parts than in the parts accepted by the market used for different industrial sectors. The value of agri-food wastes and by-products could assure food security, maintain sustainability, efficiently reduce environmental pollution and provide an opportunity to earn additional income for industries. Furthermore, sustainable extraction methodologies like ultrasound-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pulse electric field-assisted extraction, ultrasound microwave-assisted extraction and high hydrostatic pressure extraction are extensively used for the isolation, purification and recovery of various bioactive compounds from agri-food waste, according to a circular economy and sustainable approach. This review also includes some of the critical and sustainable challenges in the valorisation of agri-food wastes and explores innovative eco-friendly methods for extracting bioactive compounds from agri-food wastes, particularly for food applications. The highlights of this review are providing information on the valorisation techniques used for the extraction and recovery of different bioactive compounds from agricultural food wastes, innovative and promising approaches. Additionally, the potential use of these products presents an affordable alternative towards a circular economy and, consequently, sustainability. In this context, the encapsulation process considers the integral and sustainable use of agricultural food waste for bioactive compounds that enhance the properties and quality of functional food.

Microencapsulation with fructooligosaccharides and whey protein enhances the antioxidant activity of anthocyanins and their ability to modulate gut microbiota in vitro

Anthocyanins are the primary functional pigments in the diet. However, anthocyanins exhibit instability during digestion, coupled with limited bioavailability. Microencapsulation offers anthocyanins a sheltered environment, enhancing their stability and bioactivity. Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and whey protein (WP) commonly serve as wall materials in microencapsulation and represent a significant source of probiotic functionality. Our prior research successfully established a robust microencapsulation system for anthocyanins utilizing FOS and WP. This study investigates the antioxidative capacity, stability during in vitro digestion, modulation on gut microbiota, and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production of black soybean skin anthocyanins microencapsulated with FOS and WP (anthocyanin-loaded microencapsule particles, ALM). The results demonstrate that ALM exhibits a superior antioxidant capacity compared to free anthocyanins (ANCs) and cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G). During simulated digestion, ALM exhibits enhanced anthocyanin retention compared with ANC in both gastric and intestinal phases. In comparison with ANC and even non-loaded microcapsules (NLM), in vitro fermentation demonstrates that ALM exhibits the highest gas production and lowered pH, indicating excellent fermentation activity. Furthermore, in comparison with ANC or NLM, ALM exerts a positive influence on the diversity and composition of gut microbiota, with potentially beneficial genera such as Faecalibacterium and Akkermansia exhibiting higher relative abundance. Moreover, ALM stimulates the production of SCFAs, particularly acetic and propionic acids. In conclusion, microencapsulation of anthocyanins with FOS-WP enhances their antioxidative capacity and stability during in vitro digestion. Simultaneously, this microencapsulation illustrates a positive regulatory effect on the intestinal microbiota community and SCFA production, conferring potential health benefits.

Biological activities and mass fragmentation pathways of meroterpenoid cochlioquinones from plant pathogenic fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana

Cochlioquinones are a member of meroterpenoids that partially possessed phenolic hydroxyls with potential antioxidant activities. This study investigated the mass fragmentation pathways, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and phytotoxic activities of cochlioquinone analogs. The mass fragmentation pathways of cochlioquinones (1-7) were firstly analyzed using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, in which Retro Diels-Alder reaction, neutral loss, and McLafferty rearrangement were the main cleavage patterns. Compound 8 and 9 (a unique new analog) were then isolated in target. Cochlioquinones (4-6, 9) displayed strong antioxidant activities for DPPH radical scavenging assay as the first antioxidant effects report. In addition, 1-9 exhibited cytotoxic activities against B16 cells (IC50 from 1.91 to 12.33 μM) and Hep G2 cells (IC50 from 3.21 to 77.15 μM), and 5, 7, and 8 showed phytotoxic activities against foxtail leaves. These biological activities imply that cochlioquinones can be as antioxidant agents for food additives or bioactive molecules for cancer drugs and pesticides.

A critical review on the stability of natural food pigments and stabilization techniques

This comprehensive review article delves into the complex world of natural edible pigments, with a primary focus on their stability and the factors that influence them. The study primarily explores four classes of pigments: anthocyanins, betalains, chlorophylls and carotenoids by investigating both their intrinsic and extrinsic stability factors. The review examines factors affecting the stability of anthocyanins which act as intrinsic factors like their structure, intermolecular and intramolecular interactions, copigmentation, and self-association as well as extrinsic factors such as temperature, light exposure, metal ions, and enzymatic activities. The scrutiny extends to betalains which are nitrogen-based pigments, and delves into intrinsic factors like chemical composition and glycosylation, as well as extrinsic factors like temperature, light exposure, and oxygen levels affecting for their stability. Carotenoids are analyzed concerning their intrinsic and extrinsic stability factors. The article emphasizes the role of chemical structure, isomerization, and copigmentation as intrinsic factors and discusses how light, temperature, oxygen, and moisture levels influence carotenoid stability. The impacts of food processing methods on carotenoid preservation are explored by offering guidance on maximizing retention and nutritional value. Chlorophyll is examined for its sensitivity to external factors like light, temperature, oxygen exposure, pH, metal ions, enzymatic actions, and the food matrix composition. In conclusion, this review article provides a comprehensive exploration of the stability of natural edible pigments, highlighting the intricate interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In addition, it is important to note that all the references cited in this review article are within the past five years, ensuring the most up-to-date and relevant sources have been considered in the analysis.

Improving the storage and oxidative stability of essential fatty acids by different encapsulation methods; a review

Linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid are the only essential fatty acids (EFAs) known to the human body. Other fatty acids (FAs) of the omega-6 and omega-3 families originate from linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid, respectively, by the biological processes of elongation and desaturation. In diets with low fish consumption or vegetarianism, these FAs play an exclusive role in providing two crucial FAs for maintaining our body's vital functions; docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid. However, these polyunsaturated FAs are inherently sensitive to oxidation, thereby adversely affecting the storage stability of oils containing them. In this study, we reviewed encapsulation as one of the promising solutions to increase the stability of EFAs. Accordingly, five main encapsulation techniques could be classified: (i) spray drying, (ii) freeze drying, (iii) emulsification, (iv) liposomal entrapment, and (v) other methods, including electrospinning/spraying, complex coacervation, etc. Among these, spray drying was the frequently applied technique for encapsulation of EFAs, followed by freeze dryers. In addition, maltodextrin and gum Arabic were the main wall materials in carriers. Paying attention to industrial scalability and lower cost of the encapsulation process by the other methods are the important aspects that should be given more attention in the future.

Preparation and characterization of a modified Canna starch as a wall material for the encapsulation of methyleugenol improves its antifungal activity against Fusarium trichothecioides

In this study, α-amylase (α-A) and 2-octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA)-modified Canna starch (Cs) were prepared and characterized as wall materials and encapsulated with methyleugenol (α-A-OSA-Cs-methyleugenol); their in vitro antifungal activity against Fusarium trichothecioides (F. trichothecioides) was also investigated. The encapsulation efficiency under optimal encapsulation conditions was 83.98%. The results of particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, electron scanning microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that the modified Cs had superior physicochemical properties; it was also demonstrated that methyleugenol successfully entered the pores of Cs. The in vitro release study showed that α-A-OSA-Cs could effectively reduce their volatility under different temperature environments. α-A-OSA-Cs have excellent performance as slow-release wall materials, and after encapsulation with methyleugenol, the inhibition ability of F. trichothecioides mycelium growth was dose-dependent and improved, extending the shelf life of potatoes, which has good commercial value in the field of slow-release preservatives.

Progress of nanopreparation technology applied to volatile oil drug delivery systems

Traditional Chinese medicine volatile oil has a long history and possesses extensive pharmacological activity. However, volatile oils have characteristics such as strong volatility, poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and poor targeting, which limit their application. The use of volatile oil nano drug delivery systems can effectively improve the drawbacks of volatile oils, enhance their bioavailability and chemical stability, and reduce their volatility and toxicity. This article first introduces the limitations of the components of traditional Chinese medicine volatile oils, discusses the main classifications and latest developments of volatile oil nano formulations, and briefly describes the preparation methods of traditional Chinese medicine volatile oil nano formulations. Secondly, the limitations of nano formulation technology are discussed, along with future challenges and prospects. A deeper understanding of the role of nanotechnology in traditional Chinese medicine volatile oils will contribute to the modernization of volatile oils and broaden their application value.

Development of Pectin Particles as a Colon-Targeted Marjoram Phenolic Compound Delivery System

Marjoram is a culinary herb that has been widely employed in folk medicine and presents a high content in phenolics. Thus, the aim of this project was to design formulations to encapsulate phenolic compounds from marjoram to allow their release in the colon. For this purpose, pectin was used as an encapsulating agent, applying two different encapsulation techniques (ionic gelation and spray-drying), followed by a CaCl2 bath. The ionic gelation technique showed a higher yield (77%) compared to spray-drying (31%), and the particles obtained were smaller (267 nm). However, the microparticles obtained by spray-drying presented a higher encapsulation efficiency (93%). Moreover, spray-dried microparticles protected a higher percentage of the encapsulated phenolics from the action of gastrointestinal pHs and enzymes. Hence, the results showed that spray-drying was a more appropriate technique than ionic gelation for the encapsulation of marjoram phenolics in order to protect them during the gastrointestinal step, facilitating their arrival in the colon. These microparticles would also be suitable for inclusion in food matrices for the development of phenolic colon delivery systems.

Mucoadhesive chitosan microcapsules for controlled gastrointestinal delivery and oral bioavailability enhancement of low molecular weight peptides

A bioactive compound, collagen peptide (CP), is widely used for biological activities such as anti-photoaging and antioxidant effects, with increased oral bioavailability because of its low molecular weight and high hydrophilicity. However, controlling release time and increasing retention time in the digestive tract for a more convenient oral administration is still a challenge. We developed CP-loaded chitosan (CS) microcapsules via strong and rapid ionic gelation using a highly negative phytic acid (PA) crosslinker. The platform enhanced the oral bioavailability of CP with controlled gastrointestinal delivery by utilizing the mucoadhesiveness and tight junction-opening properties of CS. CS and CP concentrations varied from 1.5 to 3.5% and 0-30%, respectively, for optimal and stable microcapsule synthesis. The physicochemical properties, in vitro release profile with intestinal permeability, in vivo oral bioavailability, in vivo biodistribution, anti-photoaging effect, and antioxidant effect of optimized CS microcapsules were analyzed to investigate the impact of controlling parameters. The structure of CS microcapsules was tuned by PA diffused gradient ionic cross-linking degree, resulting in a controlled CP release region in the gastrointestinal tract. The optimized microcapsules increased Cmax, AUC, and tmax by 1.5-, 3.4-, and 8.0-fold, respectively. Furthermore, CP in microcapsules showed anti-photoaging effects by downregulating matrix metalloproteinases-1 via antioxidant effects. According to our knowledge, this is the first study to microencapsulate CP for oral bioavailability enhancement. The peptide delivery method employed is simple, economical, and can be applied to customize bioactive compound administration.

Role of encapsulation on the bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3 FAs) have been widely recognized for their therapeutic advantages, including anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. They have shown promise in enhancing regulatory function, promotingdevelopment and mitigating the progression of diabetes and cancer. The scientific communities, along with industries, are actively endorsing initiatives aimed at increasing the daily intake of lipids rich in omega-3 FAs. Nevertheless, incorporating polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) into food products poses several challenges due to their susceptibility to oxidation when exposed to oxygen, high temperatures, and moisture. This oxidative deterioration results in undesirable flavours and a loss of nutritional value. Various methods, including physical blending, interesterification, and encapsulation, have been utilized as ways to enhance the stability of edible oils rich in PUFA against oxidation. Encapsulation has emerged as a proven strategy for enhancing the oxidative stability and functional properties of omega-3 FA-rich oils. Multiple encapsulation methods have been developed to stabilize and improve the delivery of omega-3 FAs in food products. The selection of an appropriate encapsulation method depends on the desired application of the encapsulated oil. In addition, encapsulation enhances the bioavailability of omega-3 FAs by promoting increased absorption of the encapsulated form in the intestinal epithelium. This review discusses the techniques and principles of omega-3 FA-rich oil encapsulation and its role in improving stability and bioavailability. Furthermore, it also investigates the potential health benefits of these encapsulated oils. This review explores the variations in bioavailability based on encapsulation techniques and processing, offering vital insights for nutrition and product development.

An opportunity for acerola pulp (Malpighia emarginata DC) valorization evaluating its performance during the block cryoconcentration by physicochemical, bioactive compounds, HPLC-ESI-MS/MS, and multi-elemental profile analysis

The present study evaluated the effect of cryoconcentration of pulp blocks of acerola (Malpighia emarginata DC). The study evaluated cryoconcentration in three stages. The cryoconcentrated samples, the ice fractions, and the initial pulp were evaluated for physicochemical composition, bioactive composition, and multielement profile. The cryoconcentrated sample obtained in the third stage of cryoconcentration showed the best results for the concentration factor, process efficiency, total soluble solids content, red color intensity, and increasing of the macro and micronutrients: Cu, Ca, S, Sr, K, Mn, Na, P, Mg, Fe. All stages presented good performance in the total soluble solids content, increase in the titratable acidity of the concentrates, and progressive increase in the intensity of the red color. Generally, higher levels of total phenolic and antioxidant activity were found for the 2nd and 3rd concentrates. The phenolic activity showed an increase of 166.90% in the 3rd stage concentrate compared to fresh pulp, and the antioxidant activity was 112.10% by the ABTS method and 131.60% by the DPPH method, both in the 3rd stage concentrate. The major individual polyphenols were Ferulic acid, Protocatechuic acid, and Taxifolin, with significant increases in the concentration of the compounds in the 2nd and 3rd stage concentrates. In addition, the contents of potentially toxic metals were below detection limits. During the cryoconcentration process, there was a decrease in the values ​​of vitamin C content, moisture content, density, and elements Cu, Sr, and Zn.

Characterization and bioaccessibility assessment of bioactive compounds from camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) powders and their food applications

Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) is a tropical fruit known for its content of bioactive compounds. This study aimed to evaluate physicochemically, morphologically, andsensorialpowders from camu-camu obtained by spray-drying at two inlet temperatures (150 °C and 180 °C) with three encapsulating agents (maltodextrin, whey protein and a 50:50 mixture of both) and by freeze-drying of whole fruit. The use of maltodextrin protected bet anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G) and delphinidin-3-glucoside (D3G)), but whey protein showed a better protective effect on ascorbic and malic acids. These facts were confirmed during the storage stability test, finding that relative humidity is a critical variable in preserving the bioactive compounds of camu-camu powders. The powders with the highest content of bioactive compounds were added to a yogurt and a white grape juice, and then sensory evaluated. The bioaccessibility studies in gastric and intestinal phases showed better recovery percentages of bioactive compounds in camu-camu powders (up to 60.8 %) and beverages (up to 90 %) for C3G, D3G, ascorbic acid, and malic acid than in the fruit juice. Dehydration of camu-camu (M. dubia) is a strategy to increase the bioactive compounds stability, modulate the fruit sensory properties, and improve their bioavailability after incorporation in food matrices.

Applications of propolis encapsulation in food products

Propolis has beneficial health properties attributed to of phenolic compounds. However, its application is limited. Thus, encapsulation protects the bioactive compounds of propolis from degradation, allowing their release under controlled and specific conditions and increasing their solubility. In addition to protecting flavonoids, encapsulation also minimises the undesirable characteristics of propolis, such as strong odour. We brought attention to the high antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of encapsulated propolis, and its maintained biological activity enables more uses in different areas. Encapsulated propolis can be applied in food products as an ingredient. This review describes recent advances in improving the bioactivity of propolis extracts by using encapsulation techniques, and biopolymer research strategies, focusing on applications in food products. Encapsulated propolis has a promising market perspective due to the industrial and scientific-technological advancement, the increase in the amount of research, the improvement of propolis extraction techniques, and the need of consumers for innovative products.

A Comparative Study between Onion Peel Extracts, Free and Complexed with β-Cyclodextrin, as a Natural UV Filter to Cosmetic Formulations

The growing concern regarding the adverse effects of synthetic UV filters found in sunscreens has spurred significant attention due to their potential harm to aquatic ecosystems and human health. To address this, the present study aimed to extract and microencapsulate sensitive bioactive compounds derived from by-product onion peel (OP) by molecular inclusion using β-cyclodextrin as the wall material. Identification and quantification of bioactive compounds within the extract were conducted through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD) analysis, revealing quercetin and resveratrol as the primary constituents. The photoprotection capacity, evaluated by the sun protection factor (SPF), revealed a protection factor comparable to the value for a synthetic UV filter. The produced microparticles presented high antioxidant capacity, significant photoprotection capacity, encapsulation efficiency of 91.8%, mean diameter of 31 μm, and polydispersity of 2.09. Furthermore, to comprehensively evaluate the performance of OP extract and its potential as a natural UV filter, five O/W emulsions were produced. Results demonstrated that microparticles displayed superior ability in maintaining SPF values over a five-week period. Photoprotection evaluation-skin reactivity tests revealed that both extract and microparticles absorb UV radiation in other regions of UV radiation, revealing their potential to be used as a natural UV filter to produce a sustainable and eco-friendly value-added sunscreen.

Food-grade encapsulated polyphenols: recent advances as novel additives in foodstuffs

A growing inclination among consumers toward the consumption of natural products has propelled the usage of natural compounds as novel additives. Polyphenols are among the most popular candidates of natural food additives with multiple functionalities and bioactivities but are limited by instability. In this regard, a series of food-grade encapsulated polyphenols has been tailored for incorporating into food formulations as novel additives, which could better satisfy the complicated industry processing. This review seeks to present the most recent discussions regarding their application status in diverse foodstuffs as novel additives, involving functionalities, action mechanisms, and relevant encapsulation technologies. The scientific findings confirm that such novel additives show positive effects on physicochemical, sensory, and nutritional properties as well as the shelf life of diverse food matrices. However, poor heat resistance is still the major defect that restricts their application in thermal processes. Future research should focus on the evaluation of the compatibility and applicability of encapsulated polyphenols in real food processes as well as track and deepen their molecular action mechanisms in the context of complex foodstuffs. Innovation of existing encapsulation technologies should also be concerned in the future to bridge the gap between lab and scale-up production.

The Other Side of Plastics: Bioplastic-Based Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Systems in the Brain

Plastics have changed human lives, finding a broad range of applications from packaging to medical devices. However, plastics can degrade into microscopic forms known as micro- and nanoplastics, which have raised concerns about their accumulation in the environment but mainly about the potential risk to human health. Recently, biodegradable plastic materials have been introduced on the market. These polymers are biodegradable but also bioresorbable and, indeed, are fundamental tools for drug formulations, thanks to their transient ability to pass through biological barriers and concentrate in specific tissues. However, this "other side" of bioplastics raises concerns about their toxic potential, in the form of micro- and nanoparticles, due to easier and faster tissue accumulation, with unknown long-term biological effects. This review aims to provide an update on bioplastic-based particles by analyzing the advantages and drawbacks of their potential use as components of innovative formulations for brain diseases. However, a critical analysis of the literature indicates the need for further studies to assess the safety of bioplastic micro- and nanoparticles despite they appear as promising tools for several nanomedicine applications.

Recent Trends in Valorization of Food Industry Waste and By-Products: Encapsulation and In Vitro Release of Bioactive Compounds

Food by-products and waste are a boundless source of bioactives, nutraceuticals, and naturally occurring substances that are good for human health. In fact, a lot of by-products and wastes are generated by several food businesses. Therefore, waste management and by-product utilization are the most important aspects of the food sector. According to various studies, many bioactive compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids, and proteins can be recovered as feed stock from various industries' by-products and wastes using potential technologies. As a result, current trends are shifting attention to the sustainable valorisation of food sector waste management and by-products utilization. Thus, the circular economy principles have been applied to the field of food science. The aim of the circular economy is to ensure environmental protection and promote economic development while minimizing the environmental impact of food production. All of these aspects of the circular economy, at present, have become a challenging area of research for by-product valorisation as well. Hence, this review aims to highlight the emerging trends in the efficient utilization of food industry waste and by-products by focusing on innovative encapsulation techniques and controlled release mechanisms of bioactive compounds extracted from food industry waste and by-products. This review also aims to suggest future research directions, and addresses regulatory and toxicity considerations, by fostering knowledge dissemination and encouraging eco-friendly approaches within the food industry. This review reveals the role of encapsulation strategies for the effective utilization of bioactive compounds extracted from food industry waste and by-products. However, further research is needed to address regulatory and toxicity considerations of encapsulated bioactive compounds and health-related concerns.

Research progress of starch as microencapsulated wall material

Starch is non-toxic, low cost, and possesses good biocompatibility and biodegradability. As a natural polymer material, starch is an ideal choice for microcapsule wall materials. Starch-based microcapsules have a wide range of applications and application prospects in fields such as food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and others. This paper firstly reviews the commonly used wall materials and preparation methods of starch-based microcapsules. Then the effect of starch wall materials on microcapsule properties is introduced in detail. It is expected to provide researchers with design inspiration and ideas for the development of starch-based microcapsules. Next the applications of starch-based microcapsules in various fields are presented. Finally, the future trends of starch-based microcapsules are discussed. Molecular simulation, green chemistry, and solutions to the main problems faced by resistant starch microcapsules may be the future research trends of starch-based microcapsules.