1
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Enniatins A1 and B1 Modulate Calcium Flux through Alternative Pathways beyond Mitochondria. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:14975-14983. [PMID: 38898562 PMCID: PMC11229004 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c04242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) A1 and B1, previously considered ionophores, are emerging mycotoxins with effects on Ca2+ homeostasis. However, their exact mechanism of action remains unclear. This study investigated how these toxins affect Ca2+ flux in SH-SY5Y cells. ENN A1 induced Ca2+ influx through store-operated channels (SOC). The mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP reduced this influx, suggesting that the mitochondrial status influences the toxin effect. Conversely, ENN B1 did not affect SOC but acted on another Ca2+ channel, as shown when nickel, which directly blocks the Ca2+ channel pore, is added. Mitochondrial function also influenced the effects of ENN B1, as treatment with FCCP reduced toxin-induced Ca2+ depletion and uptake. In addition, both ENNs altered mitochondrial function by producing the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. This study describes for the first time that ENN A1 and B1 are not Ca2+ ionophores and suggests a different mechanism of action for each toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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2
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de Sá SVM, Faria MA, Fernandes JO, Cunha SC. Investigating the individual and mixture cytotoxicity of co-occurring aflatoxin B1, enniatin B, and sterigmatocystin on gastric, intestinal, hepatic, and renal cellular models. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 188:114640. [PMID: 38583501 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates the individual and combined effects of the mycotoxins, Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), Enniatin B (ENNB) and Sterigmatocystin (STG), on the cellular viability of gastric (NCI-N87), intestinal (Caco-2), hepatic (Hep-G2) and renal (Hek-293) cells, shedding light on synergistic or antagonistic effects using a constant ratio combination design proposed by Chou-Talalay. These toxins are prevalent in cereal-based foods, frequently consumed by children which raises concerns about their exposure to these mycotoxins. This population is particularly vulnerable to the effects of these toxins due to their underdeveloped organs and incompletely structured physiological processes. Results showed that ENB was the most toxic of the three mycotoxins across all cell lines, while STG and AFB1 showed lower toxicity. The combination of ENNB + STG was found to be the most potent in terms of binary mixtures. In regard to ternary combinations, Caco-2 cells are more sensitive to the tested mycotoxins, whereas NCI-N87 cells show lower levels of cell damage. Worrying dose reduction values (>10-fold) were found for ENNB in binary and ternary combinations at low exposure levels. These findings are significant for establishing initial reference values, which play a pivotal role in estimating reference doses that are subsequently incorporated into the broader risk assessment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
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3
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de Sá SVM, Faria MA, Fernandes JO, Cunha SC. In Vitro Digestion and Intestinal Absorption of Mycotoxins Due to Exposure from Breakfast Cereals: Implications for Children's Health. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:205. [PMID: 38787057 PMCID: PMC11126104 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Breakfast cereals play a crucial role in children's diets, providing essential nutrients that are vital for their growth and development. Children are known to be more susceptible than adults to the harmful effects of food contaminants, with mycotoxins being a common concern in cereals. This study specifically investigated aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), enniatin B (ENNB), and sterigmatocystin (STG), three well-characterized mycotoxins found in cereals. The research aimed to address existing knowledge gaps by comprehensively evaluating the bioaccessibility and intestinal absorption of these three mycotoxins, both individually and in combination, when consumed with breakfast cereals and milk. The in vitro gastrointestinal method revealed patterns in the bioaccessibility of AFB1, ENNB, and STG. Overall, bioaccessibility increased as the food progressed from the stomach to the intestinal compartment, with the exception of ENNB, whose behavior differed depending on the type of milk. The ranking of overall bioaccessibility in different matrices was as follows: digested cereal > cereal with semi-skimmed milk > cereal with lactose-free milk > cereal with soy beverage. Bioaccessibility percentages varied considerably, ranging from 3.1% to 86.2% for AFB1, 1.5% to 59.3% for STG, and 0.6% to 98.2% for ENNB. Overall, the inclusion of milk in the ingested mixture had a greater impact on bioaccessibility compared to consuming the mycotoxins as a single compound or in combination. During intestinal transport, ENNB and STG exhibited the highest absorption rates when ingested together. This study highlights the importance of investigating the combined ingestion and transport of these mycotoxins to comprehensively assess their absorption and potential toxicity in humans, considering their frequent co-occurrence and the possibility of simultaneous exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sara C. Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (S.V.M.d.S.); (M.A.F.); (J.O.F.)
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4
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Juan-García A, Juan C, Taipale S, Vehniäinen ER. Beauvericin and enniatin B mycotoxins alter aquatic ecosystems: Effects on green algae. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 107:104415. [PMID: 38503354 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Myxotoxins can contaminate algal-based products and arrive to the food chain to consumers producing chronic toxicity effects. Here, we studied phytotoxicity of mycotoxins, beauvericin (BEA) and ennaitin B (ENN B) in four phytoplankton strains: Acutodesmus sp., Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Haematococcus pluvialis, and Monoraphidium griffithii, which are all green algae. It was tested the capacity of clearing the media of BEA and ENN B at different concentrations by comparing nominal and measured quantifications. Results revealed that Acutodesmus sp. and C. reinhardtii tended to flow up and down growth rate without reaching values below 50% or 60%, respectively. On the other hand, for H. pluvialis and M. griffith, IC50 values were reached. Regarding the clearance of media, in individual treatment a decrease of the quantified mycotoxin between nominal and measured values was observed; while in binary treatment, differences among both values were higher and more noted for BEA than for ENN B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, València, Burjassot 46100, Spain; Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, València, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - Sami Taipale
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
| | - Eeva-Riikka Vehniäinen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
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5
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Hasuda AL, Bracarense APFRL. Toxicity of the emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins: A mini-review. Toxicon 2024; 239:107534. [PMID: 38013058 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Beauvericin and enniatins, emerging mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium species, are natural contaminants of cereals and cereal products. These mycotoxins are cyclic hexadepsipeptides with ionophore properties and their toxicity mechanism is related to their ability to transport cations across the cell membrane. Beauvericin and enniatins are cytotoxic, as they decrease cell viability, promote cell cycle arrest, and increase apoptosis and the generation of reactive oxygen species in several cell lines. They also cause changes at the transcriptomic level and have immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Toxicokinetic results are scarce, and, despite its proven toxic effects in vitro, no regulation or risk assessment has yet been performed due to a lack of in vivo data. This mini-review aims to report the information available in the literature on studies of in vitro and in vivo toxic effects with beauvericin and enniatins, which are mycotoxins of increasing interest to animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lopes Hasuda
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| | - Ana Paula F R L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
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6
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Coulet F, Coton M, Iperi C, Belinger Podevin M, Coton E, Hymery N. Cytotoxic Effects of Major and Emerging Mycotoxins on HepaRG Cells and Transcriptomic Response after Exposure of Spheroids to Enniatins B and B1. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:54. [PMID: 38251270 PMCID: PMC10819306 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins, produced by fungi, frequently occur at different stages in the food supply chain between pre- and postharvest. Globally produced cereal crops are known to be highly susceptible to contamination, thus constituting a major public health concern. Among the encountered mycotoxigenic fungi in cereals, Fusarium spp. are the most frequent and produce both regulated (i.e., T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol -DON-, zearalenone -ZEA-) and emerging (i.e., enniatins -ENNs-, beauvericin -BEA-) mycotoxins. In this study, we investigated the in vitro cytotoxic effects of regulated and emerging fusariotoxins on HepaRG cells in 2D and 3D models using undifferentiated and differentiated cells. We also studied the impact of ENN B1 and ENN B exposure on gene expression of HepaRG spheroids. Gene expression profiling pinpointed the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and overall similar pathways were involved in responses to mycotoxin exposure. Complement cascades, metabolism, steroid hormones, bile secretion, and cholesterol pathways were all negatively impacted by both ENNs. For cholesterol biosynthesis, 23/27 genes were significantly down-regulated and could be correlated to a 30% reduction in cholesterol levels. Our results show the impact of ENNs on the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway for the first time. This finding suggests a potential negative effect on human health due to the essential role this pathway plays.
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Affiliation(s)
- France Coulet
- Univ Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, F-29280 Plouzané, France; (F.C.); (M.C.); (M.B.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Monika Coton
- Univ Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, F-29280 Plouzané, France; (F.C.); (M.C.); (M.B.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Cristian Iperi
- Autoimmunité et Immunothérapies UMR 51227, Inserm, University Brest, Lymphocytes B, F-29200 Brest, France;
| | - Marine Belinger Podevin
- Univ Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, F-29280 Plouzané, France; (F.C.); (M.C.); (M.B.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Univ Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, F-29280 Plouzané, France; (F.C.); (M.C.); (M.B.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Nolwenn Hymery
- Univ Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, F-29280 Plouzané, France; (F.C.); (M.C.); (M.B.P.); (E.C.)
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7
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Galvez-Llompart M, Zanni R, Manyes L, Meca G. Elucidating the mechanism of action of mycotoxins through machine learning-driven QSAR models: Focus on lipid peroxidation. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 182:114120. [PMID: 37944785 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity is crucial for establishing effective guidelines and preventive strategies. In this study, machine learning models based on quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) were employed to predict the lipid peroxidation activity of mycotoxins. Two different algorithms using Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been trained using a dataset of 70 mycotoxins. The LDA model had an average correct classification rate of 91%, while the ANN model achieved a perfect 100% classification rate. Following an internal validation process, the models were utilized to predict mycotoxins with known lipid peroxidation activity. The machine learning models achieved an 88% correct classification rate for these mycotoxins. Finally, by utilizing classified algorithms, the study aimed to infer the mechanism of action related to lipid peroxidation for 91 unstudied mycotoxins. These models provide a fast, accurate, and cost-effective means to assess the potential toxicity and mechanism of action of mycotoxins. The findings of this study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of mycotoxin toxicology and assist researchers and toxicologists in evaluating health risks associated with mycotoxin exposure and developing appropriate preventive strategies and potential therapeutic interventions to mitigate the effects of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Galvez-Llompart
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain; Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Riccardo Zanni
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Meca
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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8
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Penalva-Olcina R, Juan C, Fernández-Franzón M, Juan-García A. Cell cycle and enzymatic activity alterations induced by ROS production in human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y exposed to Fumonisin B1, Ochratoxin A and their combination. Toxicol In Vitro 2023; 93:105670. [PMID: 37633472 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2023.105670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023]
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins such as Fumonisin B1(FB1) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in food and feed has become a threat to human and animal health since they can produce several afflictions. Different mechanisms of action by which they exercise their cytotoxic activity have been attributed to them, including the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). For this reason, a measurement of the production of ROS species, and an evaluation of the intrinsic cell enzymatic antioxidant activity, including glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione transferase (GTS), and catalase (CAT) together with a cytotoxicity and cell cycle assay have been performed in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed to FB1, OTA and [FB1 + OTA] after 24 h and 48 h. FB1 and OTA. Monitoring of intracellular ROS production was carried out by the H2-DCFDA probe; while spectrometry analysis of absorbances was used for measuring GPx, GST and CAT activity. Finally, cell proliferation and cell cycle distribution were studied by flow cytometry. When cells were treated with OTA, an increase in GPx and GST activity was observed compared to FB1 and [FB1 + OTA]; conversely, a decrease in CAT activity was observed when cells were exposed to OTA coinciding with the results observed for ROS measurement. Regarding the cell cycle, when cells were exposed to OTA, a decrease in G0/G1 was detected, revealing an arrest of cell division for SH-SY5Y cells at the concentrations studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Penalva-Olcina
- Laboratory of food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Mónica Fernández-Franzón
- Laboratory of food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain.
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9
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Sun D, Chasseur C, Mathieu F, Lechanteur J, Van Antwerpen P, Rasschaert J, Fontaine V, Delporte C. Untargeted Metabolomics Approach Correlated Enniatin B Mycotoxin Presence in Cereals with Kashin-Beck Disease Endemic Regions of China. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:533. [PMID: 37755959 PMCID: PMC10537395 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Kashin-Beck disease (KBD) is a multifactorial endemic disease that only occurs in specific Asian areas. Mycotoxin contamination, especially from the Fusarium spp., has been considered as one of the environmental risk factors that could provoke chondrocyte and cartilage damage. This study aimed to investigate whether new mycotoxins could be identified in KBD-endemic regions as a potential KBD risk factor. This was investigated on 292 barley samples collected in Tibet during 2009-2016 and 19 wheat samples collected in Inner Mongolia in 2006, as control, from KBD-endemic and non-endemic areas. The LC-HRMS(/MS) data, obtained by a general mycotoxin extraction technic, were interpreted by both untargeted metabolomics and molecular networks, allowing us to identify a discriminating compound, enniatin B, a mycotoxin produced by some Fusarium spp. The presence of Fusarium spp. DNA was detected in KBD-endemic area barley samples. Further studies are required to investigate the role of this mycotoxin in KBD development in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danlei Sun
- Unit of Microbiology, Bioorganic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium (V.F.)
- Unit of Pharmacognosy, Bioanalysis and Drug Discovery Unit & Analytical Platform of the Faculty of Pharmacy (APFP), Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Camille Chasseur
- Unit of Microbiology, Bioorganic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium (V.F.)
| | | | - Jessica Lechanteur
- Laboratory of Bone and Metabolic Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; (J.L.); (J.R.)
| | - Pierre Van Antwerpen
- Unit of Pharmacognosy, Bioanalysis and Drug Discovery Unit & Analytical Platform of the Faculty of Pharmacy (APFP), Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Joanne Rasschaert
- Laboratory of Bone and Metabolic Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; (J.L.); (J.R.)
| | - Véronique Fontaine
- Unit of Microbiology, Bioorganic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium (V.F.)
| | - Cédric Delporte
- Unit of Pharmacognosy, Bioanalysis and Drug Discovery Unit & Analytical Platform of the Faculty of Pharmacy (APFP), Faculty of Pharmacy, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium;
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10
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Hasuda AL, Person E, Khoshal A, Bruel S, Puel S, Oswald IP, Bracarense APFRL, Pinton P. Emerging mycotoxins induce hepatotoxicity in pigs' precision-cut liver slices and HepG2 cells. Toxicon 2023; 231:107195. [PMID: 37315815 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins are currently gaining more attention due to their high frequency of contamination in foods and grains. However, most data available in the literature are in vitro, with few in vivo results that prevent establishing their regulation. Beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs), emodin (EMO), apicidin (API) and aurofusarin (AFN) are emerging mycotoxins frequently found contaminating food and there is growing interest in studying their impact on the liver, a key organ in the metabolization of these components. We used an ex vivo model of precision-cut liver slices (PCLS) to verify morphological and transcriptional changes after acute exposure (4 h) to these mycotoxins. The human liver cell line HepG2 was used for comparison purposes. Most of the emerging mycotoxins were cytotoxic to the cells, except for AFN. In cells, BEA and ENNs were able to increase the expression of genes related to transcription factors, inflammation, and hepatic metabolism. In the explants, only ENN B1 led to significant changes in the morphology and expression of a few genes. Overall, our results demonstrate that BEA, ENNs, and API have the potential to be hepatotoxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lopes Hasuda
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil; TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| | - Elodie Person
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| | - Abdullah Khoshal
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| | - Sandrine Bruel
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Sylvie Puel
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| | - Ana Paula F R L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| | - Philippe Pinton
- TOXALIM (UMR 1331), Institute National de Recherche pour L'Agriculture L'Alimentation et L'Environnement Centre Occitanie-Toulouse, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
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11
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De Felice B, Spicer LJ, Caloni F. Enniatin B1: Emerging Mycotoxin and Emerging Issues. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:383. [PMID: 37368684 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice De Felice
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
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12
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Palumbo L, Genovese S, Collevecchio C, Epifano F, Fiorito S. Novel insights into the biomolecular mechanism of action of 4'-geranyloxyferulic acid, a colon cancer chemopreventive agent. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2023; 211:113706. [PMID: 37149122 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2023.113706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In this manuscript the biomolecular mechanism of action of the natural colon cancer chemopreventive agent 4'-geranyloxyferulic acid in cultured Caco-2 cells has been investigated. It was first demonstrated how the application of this phytochemical led to a time- and dose-dependent decrease of cell viability and in parallel to a massive generation of reactive oxygen species and induction of caspases 3 and 9, finally providing apoptosis. This event is accompanied by deep modifications in key pro-apoptotic targets like CD95, DR4 and 5, cytochrome c, Apaf-1, Bcl-2, and Bax. Such effects can explain the large apoptosis recorded in Caco-2 cells treated with 4'-geranyloxyferulic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Palumbo
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università"G. d'Annunzio" Chieti - Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Italy
| | - Salvatore Genovese
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università"G. d'Annunzio" Chieti - Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Italy.
| | - Chiara Collevecchio
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università"G. d'Annunzio" Chieti - Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Italy
| | - Francesco Epifano
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università"G. d'Annunzio" Chieti - Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Italy.
| | - Serena Fiorito
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università"G. d'Annunzio" Chieti - Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Italy.
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13
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Berntssen MHG, Fjeldal PG, Gavaia PJ, Laizé V, Hamre K, Donald CE, Jakobsen JV, Omdal Å, Søderstrøm S, Lie KK. Dietary beauvericin and enniatin B exposure cause different adverse health effects in farmed Atlantic salmon. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 174:113648. [PMID: 36736876 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The extensive use of plant ingredients in novel aquafeeds have introduced mycotoxins to the farming of seafood. The emerging enniatin B (ENNB) and beauvericin (BEA) mycotoxins have been found in the novel aquafeeds and farmed fish. Little is known about the potential toxicity of ENNs and BEA in farmed fish and their feed-to-organ transfer. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) pre-smolt (75.3 ± 8.10 g) were fed four graded levels of spiked chemical pure ENNB or BEA feeds for three months, in triplicate tanks. Organismal adverse health end-point assessment included intestinal function (protein digestibility), disturbed hematology (red blood cell formation), bone formation (spinal deformity), overall energy use (feed utilization), and lipid oxidative status (vitamin E). Both dietary BEA and ENNB had a low (<∼0.01%) transfer to organs (kidney > liver > brain > muscle), with a higher transfer for ENNB compared to BEA. BEA caused a growth reduction combined with a decreased protein digestion and feed conversion rate- ENNB caused a stunted growth, unrelated to feed utilization capacity. In addition, ENNB caused anemia while BEA gave an oxidative stress response. Lower bench-mark dose regression assessment showed that high background levels of ENNB in commercial salmon feed could pose a risk for animal health, but not in the case of BEA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - P G Fjeldal
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - P J Gavaia
- Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - V Laizé
- Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - K Hamre
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - C E Donald
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - J V Jakobsen
- Cargill Aqua Nutrition Innovation Center, Dirdal, Norway
| | - Å Omdal
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - K K Lie
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
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14
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Teng H, Qian Y, Fan X, Cao H, Tian Y, Chen L. Nutritional properties of Europen eel (Anguilla anguilla) bone peptide-calcium and its apoptosis effect on Caco-2 cells. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2022.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Chiminelli I, Spicer LJ, Maylem ERS, Caloni F. In Vitro Effects of Enniatin A on Steroidogenesis and Proliferation of Bovine Granulosa Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100714. [PMID: 36287982 PMCID: PMC9607026 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging Fusarium mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) have been the focus of new research because of their well-documented existence in various cereal and grain products. Research findings indicate that reproductive disorders may be caused by exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins, but little work has evaluated ENNs on reproductive function. Therefore, to determine the effects of ENNA on the proliferation and steroidogenesis of granulosa cells (GC), experiments were conducted using bovine GC cultures. In vitro, ENNA (1−5 μM) inhibited (p < 0.05) hormone-induced GC progesterone and estradiol production. The inhibitory effect of ENNA on estradiol production was more pronounced in small- than large-follicle GC. In large-follicle GC, 0.3 μM ENNA had no effect (p > 0.10) whereas 1 and 3 μM ENNA inhibited GC proliferation. In small-follicle GC, ENNA (1−5 μM) dramatically decreased (p < 0.05) GC proliferation. Using cell number data, the IC50 of ENNA was estimated at 2 μM for both follicle sizes. We conclude that ENNA can directly inhibit ovarian function in cattle, decreasing the proliferation and steroid production of GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Chiminelli
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leon J. Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Excel Rio S. Maylem
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Gegunde S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Enniatins A1 and B1 alter calcium homeostasis of neuronal cells leading to apoptotic death. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 168:113361. [PMID: 35970269 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) A1 and B1 are non-regulated mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. that commonly occur in different types of food. These toxins are cytotoxic in several cell lines, but their mechanism of action is unclear. In this study, the cytotoxic effects of ENNs A1 and B1 in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells were analysed. Moreover, to better understand their mechanism of action, mitochondrial function, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and calcium fluxes were monitored. ENNs A1 and B1 reduced cell viability, presenting IC50 values of 2.0 and 2.7 μM, respectively. Both toxins induced caspase-dependent apoptosis, but only ENN A1 increased ROS production. Apoptotic cell death seems to be triggered by the increase in cytosolic calcium produced by both ENNs, since the toxins altered Ca2+ homeostasis by depleting intracellular reservoirs. Finally, binary combinations of ENN A1, ENN B1, ENN A and ENN B were tested. All mixtures resulted in an antagonistic effect, with the exception of ENN A and ENN B1 combination, which produced an additive effect. The results presented in this study provide the first evidence of ENNs A1 and B1 effects on calcium fluxes, providing new insights into the mechanism of action of these mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Sandra Gegunde
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain; Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitario Santiago de Compostela (FIDIS), Hospital Universitario Lucus Augusti, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
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Søderstrøm S, Lie KK, Lundebye AK, Søfteland L. Beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin B (ENNB)-induced impairment of mitochondria and lysosomes - Potential sources of intracellular reactive iron triggering ferroptosis in Atlantic salmon primary hepatocytes. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 161:112819. [PMID: 35038498 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin B (ENNB) are emerging mycotoxins frequently detected in plant-based fish feed. With ionophoric properties, they have shown cytotoxic potential in mammalian models. Sensitivity in fish is still largely unknown. Primary hepatocytes isolated from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were used as a model and exposed to BEA and ENNB (0.05-10 μM) for 48 h. Microscopy, evaluation of cell viability, total ATP, total H2O2, total iron content, total Gpx enzyme activity, and RNA sequencing were used to characterize the toxicodynamics of BEA and ENNB. Both mycotoxins became cytotoxic at ≥ 5 μM, causing condensation of the hepatocytes followed by formation of blister-like protrusions on the cell's membrane. RNA sequencing analysis at sub-cytotoxic levels indicated BEA and ENNB exposed hepatocytes to experience increased energy expenditure, elevated oxidative stress, and iron homeostasis disturbances sensitizing the hepatocytes to ferroptosis. The present study provides valuable knowledge disclosing the toxic action of these mycotoxins in Atlantic salmon primary hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kai K Lie
- Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
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18
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Debevere S, Demeyere K, Reisinger N, Faas J, Haesaert G, Fievez V, Croubels S, Meyer E. Exploratory real-time kinetic analysis of the cytotoxicity induced by maize silage mycotoxins in a calf intestinal epithelial cell line. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In a temperate climate, the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), enniatin B (ENN B), mycophenolic acid (MPA), roquefortine C (ROC) and zearalenone (ZEN) are often found in maize silage. Although rumen microbiota are able to degrade some mycotoxins (e.g. DON), others are known to stay mainly intact (e.g. ROC). In addition, mycotoxin degradation can be hampered by a low ruminal pH or decrease in rumen microbial activity. Hence, these mycotoxins can reach the small intestine and exert a cytotoxic effect on intestinal epithelial cells. In this study, a real-time kinetic analysis of the cytotoxicity of these six mycotoxins and some of their metabolites (α- and β-zearalenol, α- and β-ZOL) was performed in a calf small intestinal epithelial cell line (CIEB). Confluency as well as the cell death parameters apoptosis and necrosis were determined to evaluate the mycotoxin-induced cytotoxicity. A combination of Annexin-V green and Cytotox red staining was used to determine early and late apoptosis as well as necrosis. Six different concentrations were tested ranging from 0.78 to 12.5 μM. Compared to cells not exposed to mycotoxins, DON and NIV exert a fast toxic effect with DON being more toxic than NIV within the first hours of incubation, whereas the inverse was observed at 16 h of incubation. On the other hand, MPA and ZEN induced increased Annexin V green positive cells within several hours of incubation with higher toxicity over time. Increased Annexin V green and Cytotox red positive cells were seen for ROC only at the highest concentration tested. For ENN B, increased Annexin V green positive cells were observed only after 12 h and α- and β-ZOL did not show cytotoxic effects. Hence, mycotoxin exposure causes either severe (DON and NIV) or more limited (ZEN, ROC, MPA, and ENN B) risk of bovine intestinal epithelial damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Debevere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - K. Demeyere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - N. Reisinger
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - J. Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - G. Haesaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - V. Fievez
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - S. Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - E. Meyer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Juan-García A, Juan C, Bind MA, Engert F. Study of locomotion response and development in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae exposed to enniatin A, enniatin B, and beauvericin. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 777:146075. [PMID: 33677298 PMCID: PMC8154722 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi that contaminate food and feed resources, and are capable of inducing a wide range of toxicity. Here, we studied the developmental and behavioral toxicity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae exposed to three mycotoxins: beauvericin (BEA), Enniatin A (ENN A), and Ennitain B (ENN B). Zebrafish embryos were collected after fertilization, treated individually from 1 to 6 dpf with BEA at 8, 16, 32 and, 64 μM and for both enniatins at 3.12, 6.25, 12.5 and, 25 μM. Mixture of mycotoxins were assayed as follows: i) for BEA + ENN A and BEA + ENN B at [32 + 12.5] μM and [16 + 6.25] μM; ii) for ENN A + ENN B at [12.5 + 12.5] μM and [6.25 + 6.25] μM and, iii) for BEA + ENN A + ENN B at [32 + 12.5 + 12.5] μM and [16 + 6.25 + 6.25] μM. Response was collected after a white light-flash intermittent coming on for 5 s during 2 h with a imaging platform. Outcomes measured were: time to death, response to light, and circadian rhythm. This last outcome was measured in a plate where embryos had evolved in natural intervals of light and dark until day 7 or in a plate maintained in darkness. Images of all stages and evolution were collected. Results indicated that mycotoxins induced toxicity at the concentrations tested. All exposed zebrafish induced developmental defects, specifically hatching time and motion activity. After exposure, fish showed enhanced baseline activity but they lost their responsiveness to light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Marie-Abèle Bind
- Department of Statistics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Florian Engert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Gegunde S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Single and combined effects of regulated and emerging mycotoxins on viability and mitochondrial function of SH-SY5Y cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 154:112308. [PMID: 34062223 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Co-occurrence of emerging and regulated mycotoxins in contaminated samples has been widely documented, but studies about their combined toxicity are scarce. In this report, the regulated mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and zearalenone, and the emerging ones enniatin A, enniatin B and beauvericin were tested in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Their individual and binary combined effects on cell viability and mitochondrial function were evaluated. The results with individual mycotoxins revealed that deoxynivalenol and emerging mycotoxins were the most damaging to neuronal cells, presenting IC50 values between 0.35 and 2.4 μM. Interestingly, non-regulated mycotoxins triggered apoptosis by affecting to mitochondrial membrane potential. However, when regulated and non-regulated mycotoxins were binary mixed, antagonistic effects were found in all cases. Finally, cow feed and milk extracts were analysed by UHPLC-MS/MS, detecting the presence of several mycotoxins included in this study. These extracts were tested in neuroblastoma cells, and damaging effects on cell viability were found. Although binary combinations of mycotoxins produced antagonistic effects, their mixture in natural matrixes induces greater effects than expected. Therefore, it would be interesting to explore the matrix influence on mycotoxin toxicity, and to continue studying the neurotoxic mechanism of action of emerging mycotoxins, as they could be a health hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Sandra Gegunde
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
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Lin X, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Li J, Zhang M, Hu X, Li F. Further data on the levels of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals collected from Tianjin, China. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS. PART B, SURVEILLANCE 2021; 14:74-80. [PMID: 33522441 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2021.1873425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A number of 344 samples were collected from Tianjin, China and were analysed for the occurrence of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins including enniatin A (ENN A), enniatin A1 (ENN A1), enniatin B (ENN B), enniatin B1 (ENN B1) and beauvericin (BEA) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The frequencies of mycotoxins studied were 69.0% (40/58), 69.8% (37/53), 85.9% (67/78), 78.9% (75/95), and 30.0% (18/60) for rice, wheat, corn, wheat flour, and corn flour, respectively. BEA was the predominant toxin in rice (average = 37.2 μg/kg) and wheat (average = 58.4 μg/kg), followed by ENN B and ENN B1, while less ENN A and ENN A1 were detected. ENN A was most common in corns with an average level of 28.1 μg/kg, while BEA had a higher average of 62.8 μg/kg. The levels of ENNs and BEA significantly decreased in wheat flours and corn flours, presumably due to the production process. The co-occurrences of ENNs and BEA in cereal samples were common in the combination of two and three mycotoxins and the significant positive correlations in concentrations were also obtained among them. Besides, agroclimate was considered as an important factor for Fusarium production and the mycotoxin contamination was found more serious in Jizhou district, which had more rainfall and less sunshine, than the other agriculture regions. These results suggested the necessity of carrying out in-depth and large-scale monitoring of mycotoxins in cereals and their products nationwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Lin
- Sanitary Inspection Institute, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Tianjin, PR China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Sanitary Inspection Institute, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Tianjin, PR China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Sanitary Inspection Institute, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Tianjin, PR China
| | - Jianping Li
- Sanitary Inspection Institute, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Tianjin, PR China
| | - Mingyue Zhang
- Sanitary Inspection Institute, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Tianjin, PR China
| | - Xiao Hu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Occupational and Environmental Hazard, Logistics College of Chinese People's Armed Police Forces , Tianjin, China
| | - Fengqin Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing, PR China
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Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110686. [PMID: 33138307 PMCID: PMC7693699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.
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Huang CH, Wang FT, Chan WH. Enniatin B induces dosage-related apoptosis or necrosis in mouse blastocysts leading to deleterious effects on embryo development. Drug Chem Toxicol 2020; 45:1449-1460. [PMID: 33106064 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2020.1838537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The current study has focused on the effects of enniatin B (ENN B, a major mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi) on early embryonic development. In in vitro analysis, mouse blastocysts were incubated in medium with ENN B (0-40 μM) or 0.5% DMSO (control group) for 24 hours. In an animal study, blastocysts were collected from mice which were intravenously injected with ENN B (1, 3, 5, and 7mg/kg body weight/day) for 4 days in order to analyze apoptosis and necrosis via Annexin V/PI staining assay; and proliferation using dual differential staining. Exposure to low ENN B concentration (10 μM in vitro and 3 mg/kg/day in vivo) promoted Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation and apoptosis in the Inner Cell Mass (ICM), the mass of cells inside the blastocyst, impairing post-implantation development alone. On the other hand, exposure to a higher ENN B concentration (40 μM in vitro and 7 mg/kg/day in vivo) induced ROS generation and decreased in intracellular ATP which encouraged necrotic processes in both trophectoderm (TE) and ICM of blastocysts leading to impaired implantation and post-implantation development. Moreover, 5 and 7 mg/kg/day ENN B intraperitoneal injection to female mice for 4 days has caused downregulation of CXCL1, IL-1β and IL-8 expressions and increased ROS generation in the liver of newborn mice. Over all, ENN B can induce apoptosis and/or necrosis depending on the treatment dosage in mouse blastocysts. ENN B-induced necrosis in blastocysts may exert long-term harmful effects on next-generation newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsun Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taoyuan General Hospital, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ting Wang
- Rehabilitation and Technical Aid Center, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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Xu R, Xu Z, Si Y, Xing X, Li Q, Xiao J, Wang B, Tian G, Zhu L, Wu Z, Zhang G. Oxygen Vacancy Defect-Induced Activity Enhancement of Gd Doping Magnetic Nanocluster for Oxygen Supplying Cancer Theranostics. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:36917-36927. [PMID: 32706569 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c09952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This work finds that Fe3O4 nanoclusters can rearrange by Gd doping and then self-assemble to a hollow magnetic nanocluster (HMNC), providing larger magnetic moments to obtain an excellent MRI capability and increasing the number of oxygen vacancies in HMNC. The hollow structure makes platinum(IV) prodrugs effectively load into HMNC. Second, plenty of oxygen vacancy defects can capture oxygen molecules, enhance the catalytic activity of HMNC, and then promote intracellular ROS generation. On the basis of this, a targeting iRGD-labeled HMNC nanosystem (iHMNCPt-O2) is developed through loading oxygen molecules and platinum(IV) prodrugs for chemo- and chemodynamic therapy of cancer. This nanosystem shows an excellent response ability to weak acid and GSH, which can cause a series of cascade reactions in a cell. These cascade reactions are dramatically enhanced at the intracellular ROS level, cause mitochondria and DNA damage, and then induce cancer cell death. Besides, systemic delivery of iHMNCPt-O2 significantly enhanced the MRI contrast signal of tumors and improved the quality of MR images, accurately diagnosing tumors. Therefore, this work provides a novel method for accelerating the Fenton-like reaction and enhancing the MRI capability and fabricates a promising "all-in-one" system to overwhelm the problems of cancer theranostic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
- Department of Radiology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai 200001, P.R. China
- Department of Dental Implant Center, Stomatologic Hospital & College, Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, P. R. China
| | - Zhaowei Xu
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
| | - Yuanchun Si
- Department of Dental Implant Center, Stomatologic Hospital & College, Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, P. R. China
| | - Xin Xing
- Department of Dental Implant Center, Stomatologic Hospital & College, Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, P. R. China
| | - Qingdong Li
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, P.R. China
| | - Jianmin Xiao
- Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, P.R. China
| | - Bin Wang
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
| | - Geng Tian
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
| | - Ling Zhu
- Department of Radiology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai 200001, P.R. China
| | - Zhengyan Wu
- Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, P.R. China
| | - Guilong Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, the Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, P. R. China
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Taroncher M, Pigni MC, Diana MN, Juan-García A, Ruiz MJ. Does low concentration mycotoxin exposure induce toxicity in HepG2 cells through oxidative stress? Toxicol Mech Methods 2020; 30:417-426. [PMID: 32306886 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2020.1757000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether exposure to low concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T-2) and patulin (PAT) in a human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2) exerts toxic effects through mechanisms related to oxidative stress, and how cells deal with such exposure. Cell viability was determined by the MTT and protein content (PC) assays over 24, 48 and 72 h. The IC50 values detected ranged from >10 to 2.53 ± 0.21 μM (DON), 0.050 ± 0.025 to 0.034 ± 0.007 μM (T-2) and 2.66 ± 0.66 to 1.17 ± 0.21 µM (PAT). The key players in oxidative stress are the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) dysfunction. The results obtained showed that PAT, DON and T-2 did not significantly increase LPO or ROS production with respect to the controls. Moreover, PAT and DON did not alter MMP, though T-2 increased MMP at the higher concentrations tested (17 and 34 nM). In conclusion, the exposure of HepG2 cells to nontoxic concentrations of T-2 condition them against subsequent cellular oxidative conditions induced by even higher concentrations of mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Chiari Pigni
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Natalia Diana
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Jose Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Tran VN, Viktorova J, Augustynkova K, Jelenova N, Dobiasova S, Rehorova K, Fenclova M, Stranska-Zachariasova M, Vitek L, Hajslova J, Ruml T. In Silico and In Vitro Studies of Mycotoxins and Their Cocktails; Their Toxicity and Its Mitigation by Silibinin Pre-Treatment. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E148. [PMID: 32121188 PMCID: PMC7150870 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins found in randomly selected commercial milk thistle dietary supplement were evaluated for their toxicity in silico and in vitro. Using in silico methods, the basic physicochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties of the mycotoxins were predicted using ACD/Percepta. The in vitro cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins was determined in mouse macrophage (RAW 264.7), human hepatoblastoma (HepG2), and human embryonic kidney (HEK 293T) cells. In addition, we studied the bioavailability potential of mycotoxins and silibinin utilizing an in vitro transwell system with differentiated human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) simulating mycotoxin transfer through the intestinal epithelial barrier. The IC50 values for individual mycotoxins in studied cells were in the biologically relevant ranges as follows: 3.57-13.37 nM (T-2 toxin), 5.07-47.44 nM (HT-2 toxin), 3.66-17.74 nM (diacetoxyscirpenol). Furthermore, no acute toxicity was obtained for deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, zearalenone, enniatinENN-A, enniatin-A1, enniatin-B, enniatin-B1, alternariol, alternariol-9-methyl ether, tentoxin, and mycophenolic acid up to the 50 nM concentration. The acute toxicity of these mycotoxins in binary combinations exhibited antagonistic effects in the combinations of T-2 with DON, ENN-A1, or ENN-B, while the rest showed synergistic or additive effects. Silibinin had a significant protective effect against both the cytotoxicity of three mycotoxins (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, DAS) and genotoxicity of AME, AOH, DON, and ENNs on HEK 293T. The bioavailability results confirmed that AME, DAS, ENN-B, TEN, T-2, and silibinin are transported through the epithelial cell layer and further metabolized. The bioavailability of silibinin is very similar to mycotoxins poor penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Nguyen Tran
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Jitka Viktorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Augustynkova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Nikola Jelenova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Simona Dobiasova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Rehorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Marie Fenclova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Milena Stranska-Zachariasova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Libor Vitek
- First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Katerinska 32, 12108 Prague 2, Czech Republic;
- Faculty General Hospital, U Nemocnice 2, 12808 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Tomas Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
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Juan-García A, Montesano D, Mañes J, Juan C. Cytoprotective effects of carotenoids-rich extract from Lycium barbarum L. on the beauvericin-induced cytotoxicity on Caco-2 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 133:110798. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Reisinger N, Schürer-Waldheim S, Mayer E, Debevere S, Antonissen G, Sulyok M, Nagl V. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage-A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E577. [PMID: 31590302 PMCID: PMC6832361 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Forages are important components of dairy cattle rations but might harbor a plethora of mycotoxins. Ruminants are considered to be less susceptible to the adverse health effects of mycotoxins, mainly because the ruminal microflora degrades certain mycotoxins. Yet, impairment of the ruminal degradation capacity or high ruminal stability of toxins can entail that the intestinal epithelium is exposed to significant mycotoxin amounts. The aims of our study were to assess i) the mycotoxin occurrence in maize silage and ii) the cytotoxicity of relevant mycotoxins on bovine intestinal cells. In total, 158 maize silage samples were collected from European dairy cattle farms. LC-MS/MS-based analysis of 61 mycotoxins revealed the presence of emerging mycotoxins (e.g. emodin, culmorin, enniatin B1, enniatin B, and beauvericin) in more than 70% of samples. Among the regulated mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were most frequently detected (67.7%). Overall, 87% of maize silages contained more than five mycotoxins. Using an in vitro model with calf small intestinal epithelial cells B, the cytotoxicity of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1 and enniatin B was evaluated (0-200 µM). Absolute IC50 values varied in dependence of employed assay and were 1.2-3.6 µM, 0.8-1.0 µM, 8.6-18.3 µM, and 4.0-6.7 µM for deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1, and enniatin B, respectively. Results highlight the potential relevance of mycotoxins for bovine gut health, a previously neglected target in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sandra Debevere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute for Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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Biotransformation of the Mycotoxin Enniatin B1 by CYP P450 3A4 and Potential for Drug-Drug Interactions. Metabolites 2019; 9:metabo9080158. [PMID: 31357617 PMCID: PMC6724072 DOI: 10.3390/metabo9080158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) are fungal secondary metabolites that frequently occur in grain in temperate climates. Their toxic potency is connected to their ionophoric character and lipophilicity. The biotransformation of ENNs predominantly takes place via cytochrome P450 3A (CYP 3A)-dependent oxidation reactions. Possible interaction with ENNs is relevant since CYP3A4 is the main metabolic enzyme for numerous drugs and contaminants. In the present study, we have determined the kinetic characteristics and inhibitory potential of ENNB1 in human liver microsomes (HLM) and CYP3A4-containing nanodiscs (ND). We showed in both in vitro systems that ENNB1 is mainly metabolised by CYP3A4, producing at least eleven metabolites. Moreover, ENNB1 significantly decreased the hydroxylation rates of the typical CYP3A4-substrate midazolam (MDZ). Deoxynivalenol (DON), which is the most prevalent mycotoxin in grain and usually co-occurrs with the ENNs, was not metabolised by CYP3A4 or binding to its active site. Nevertheless, DON affected the efficiency of this biotransformation pathway both in HLM and ND. The metabolite formation rates of ENNB1 and the frequently used drugs progesterone (PGS) and atorvastatin (ARVS) lactone were noticeably reduced, which indicated a certain affinity of DON to the enzyme with subsequent conformational changes. Our results emphasise the importance of drug-drug interaction studies, also with regard to natural toxins.
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Juan-García A, Tolosa J, Juan C, Ruiz MJ. Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity and Disturbance of Cell Cycle in HepG2 Cells Exposed to OTA and BEA: Single and Combined Actions. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060341. [PMID: 31208011 PMCID: PMC6628395 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by a number of fungal genera spp., for example, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Beauvericin (BEA) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) are present in various cereal crops and processed grains. This goal of this study was to determine their combination effect in HepG2 cells, presented for the first time. In this study, the type of interaction among BEA and OTA through an isobologram method, cell cycle disturbance by flow cytometry, and genotoxic potential by in vitro micronucleus (MN) assay following the TG 487 (OECD, 2016) of BEA and OTA individually and combined in HepG2 cells are presented. Cytotoxic concentration ranges studied by the MTT assay over 24, 48, and 72 h were from 0 to 25 µM for BEA and from 0 to 100 µM for OTA, while BEA + OTA combinations were at a 1:10 ratio from 3.4 to 27.5 µM. The toxicity observed for BEA was higher than for OTA at all times assayed; additive and synergistic effects were detected for their mixtures. Cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase was detected for OTA and BEA + OTA treatments in HepG2 cells. Genotoxicity revealed significant effects for BEA, OTA, and in combinations underlining the importance of studying real exposure scenarios of chronic exposure to mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Josefa Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
- ProtoQSAR, CEEI, Avda. Benjamin Franklin 12, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
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Effects of deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol on parameters associated with oxidative stress in HepG2 cells. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:197-205. [PMID: 30806951 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00344-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This work studied the effect of deoxynivalenol (DON) and two of its acetylated analogs (3-ADON, 15-ADON) on first indicators of oxidative stress status, namely production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induction of lipid peroxidation (LPO), in HepG2 cells. HepG2 cells were exposed to different concentrations of the three toxins, either alone or in combinations, for 24, 48, and 72 h. Results of cytotoxicity obtained in HepG2 cells were correlated with the detection of ROS and LPO. This effect was inversely correlated with ROS while directly correlated with LPO for the assayed mycotoxins in individual treatment. Combinations of two toxins containing 15-ADON yielded highest values, while for two-toxin combinations with 3-ADON, the effects were minor. A combination of all three mycotoxins alleviated ROS production and the highest levels in LPO were detected, in association to a final breakdown of adaption of ROS early produced by HepG2. In conclusion, parameters of stress evaluation presented in this study (ROS and LPO), revealed increases in HepG2 cells exposed to DON, 3-ADON, and 15-ADON either individually or combined.
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Tolosa J, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ferrer E, Mañes J. Identification and Quantification of Enniatins and Beauvericin in Animal Feeds and Their Ingredients by LC-QTRAP/MS/MS. Metabolites 2019; 9:metabo9020033. [PMID: 30781843 PMCID: PMC6409939 DOI: 10.3390/metabo9020033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging fusariotoxins, mainly enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA), are secondary toxic metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. and are widely distributed contaminants of cereals and by-products. Mycotoxin contamination in these products supposes an important risk to feed supply security in the feed industry due to the common use of cereals in feed formulations. Hence, continuous monitoring of both raw materials and feed mixtures is highly recommended as stated by sanitary authorities. Therefore, an analytical procedure based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and an acetonitrile-based extraction followed by a d-SPE (QuEChERS) step for the simultaneous determination of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins was in-house validated and successfully applied to raw materials (n = 39) and feed manufactured with them (n = 48). The analytical method was validated following the European guidelines and satisfactory results were obtained. Both raw materials and complete feedstuffs showed mycotoxin contamination at incidences of 18% and 92%, respectively. ENN B was the most commonly found mycotoxin in the analyzed samples at concentrations up to several tens of µg/kg. On the other hand, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins was observed in 47% of samples, ENN B and BEA being the most common combination. These results highlight the necessity to take a vigilant attitude to monitor the occurrence of contaminants in raw materials and feedstuffs throughout the manufacturing chain and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefa Tolosa
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
- ProtoQSAR, CEEI, Avda. Benjamin Franklin 12, Desp. 8, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Emilia Ferrer
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
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Abstract
A total of 470 edible vegetable oil samples including peanut, soybean, rapeseed, sesame seed, corn, blend, and others collected from eight provinces of China were analyzed for the concentrations of beauvericin (BEA), enniatin A (ENA), A1 (ENA1), B (ENB), and B1 (ENB1) by ultraperformance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-MS/MS). Concentrations of BEA, ENB, and ENB1 (average = 5.59 μg/kg, 5.16 μg/kg, and 4.61 μg/kg) in all positive samples were higher than those for ENA and ENA1 (average = 0.85 μg/kg and 1.88 μg/kg). Frequencies of BEA and ENNs in all analyzed samples were all higher than 50% with the exception of ENA1 (36.6%, 172/470). Levels of BEA and ENNs in all analyzed samples varied based on their sample types and geographical distributions (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.05). The soybean and peanut oil samples were found to be more easily contaminated by BEA and ENNs than other oil samples. Concentrations of BEA and ENNs in samples obtained from Heilongjiang, Shandong and Guizhou were higher than those found in samples from other provinces. Besides, frequencies of mycotoxin co-contaminations were high and their co-contamination types also varied by oil types. BEA-ENA-ENA1-ENB-ENB1 was the most commonly found toxin combination type, almost in one third of the analyzed samples (30%, 141/470). Overall, these results indicate that co-occurrence of BEA and ENNs in analyzed Chinese edible vegetable oil samples is highly common, and it is vital to monitor them, both simultaneously and on a widespread level.
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Huang CH, Wang FT, Chan WH. Enniatin B1 exerts embryotoxic effects on mouse blastocysts and induces oxidative stress and immunotoxicity during embryo development. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2019; 34:48-59. [PMID: 30259633 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Enniatins are mycotoxins of Fusarium fungi that naturally exist as mixtures of cyclic depsipeptides. Previous reports have documented hazardous effects of enniatins on cells, such as apoptosis. However, their effects on pre- and post-implantation embryonic development require further clarification. Here, we showed for the first time that enniatin B1 (ENN B1) exerts cytotoxic effects on mouse blastocyst-stage embryos and induces intracellular oxidative stress and immunotoxicity in mouse fetuses. Co-incubation of blastocysts with ENN B1 triggered significant apoptosis and led to a decrease in total cell number predominantly through loss of inner cell mass. In addition, ENN B1 appeared to exert hazardous effects on pre and postimplantation embryo development potential in an in vitro development assay. Treatment of blastocysts with 1-10 μM ENN B1 led to increased resorption of post-implantation embryos and decreased fetal weight in the embryo transfer assay in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, in an in vivo model, intravenous injection with ENN B1 (1, 3, and 5 mg/kg body weight/d) for 4 days resulted in apoptosis of blastocyst-stage embryos and impairment of embryonic development from the zygote to blastocyst stage, subsequent degradation of embryos, and further decrease in fetal weight. Intravenous injection with 5 mg/kg body weight/d ENN B1 additionally induced a significant increase in total reactive oxygen species (ROS) content and transcription levels of genes encoding antioxidant proteins in mouse fetal liver. Moreover, ENN B1 triggered apoptosis through ROS generation and strategies to prevent apoptotic processes effectively rescued ENN B1-mediated hazardous effects on embryonic development. Transcription levels of CXCL1, IL-1β, and IL-8 related to innate immunity were downregulated after intravenous injection of ENN B1. These results collectively highlight the potential of ENN B1 to exert cytotoxic effects on embryos as well as oxidative stress and immunotoxicity during mouse embryo development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsun Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taoyuan General Hospital, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ting Wang
- Rehabilitation and Technical Aid Center, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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Monguzzi E, Marabini L, Elli L, Vaira V, Ferrero S, Ferretti F, Branchi F, Gaudioso G, Scricciolo A, Lombardo V, Doneda L, Roncoroni L. Gliadin effect on the oxidative balance and DNA damage: An in-vitro, ex-vivo study. Dig Liver Dis 2019; 51:47-54. [PMID: 30055963 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2018.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gliadins are involved in gluten-related disorders and are responsible for the alteration of the cellular redox balance. It is not clear if the gliadin-related oxidative stress can induce DNA damage in enterocytes. AIM To investigate any possible genotoxicity caused by gliadin and to assess its relationship with oxidative stress in vitro and ex vivo. METHODS Caco-2 cells were exposed for 6-12-24 h to increasing concentrations (250 μg/mL-1000 μg/mL) of digested gliadin. We investigated: cytotoxicity, oxidative balance (reactive oxygen species, ROS), DNA damage (comet assay and γ-H2AX detection), transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) activity and annexin V expression. H2AX and 8-OHG immunohistochemistry has been evaluated on duodenal biopsies of celiac subjects and controls. RESULTS Gliadin induced a significant increase (+50%) of ROS after 12 h of exposition starting with a 500 μg/mL dose of gliadin. Comet assay and γ-H2AX demonstrated DNA damage, evident at the gliadin concentration of 500 μg/mL after 24 h. TG2 activity increased in chromatin and cytoskeleton cellular compartments at different gliadin doses (250/500/1000 μg/mL). The γ-H2AX and 8-OHG immunohistochemistry was altered in the duodenal biopsies of celiac patients. CONCLUSIONS Gliadin induces cellular oxidative stress, DNA damage and pro-apoptotic stimulation in Caco-2 cells and in the duodenal mucosa of celiac patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Monguzzi
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Marabini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Luca Elli
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy.
| | - Valentina Vaira
- Division of Pathology, IRCCS Ca' Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Ferrero
- Division of Pathology, IRCCS Ca' Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Ferretti
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Branchi
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriella Gaudioso
- Division of Pathology, IRCCS Ca' Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy
| | - Alice Scricciolo
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy
| | - Vincenza Lombardo
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy
| | - Luisa Doneda
- Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Leda Roncoroni
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit - Center for Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease, IRCCS Ca's Granda Foundation "Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico", Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Han X, Xu W, Zhang J, Xu J, Li F. Natural Occurrence of Beauvericin and Enniatins in Corn- and Wheat-Based Samples Harvested in 2017 Collected from Shandong Province, China. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 11:toxins11010009. [PMID: 30591635 PMCID: PMC6356366 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Totals of 158 corn and corn-based samples and 291 wheat and wheat-based samples from Shandong province, China in 2017 were analyzed for five mycotoxins including beauvericin (BEA), enniatin A (ENA), enniatin A1 (ENA1), enniatin B (ENB), and enniatin B1 (ENB1) by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). BEA was the predominant toxin detected, followed by ENB, ENA1, ENA, and ENB1. Corn and corn-based samples were more easily contaminated by BEA with an average concentration of 65.26 µg/kg, compared with that in wheat and wheat-based samples (average = 0.41 µg/kg). Concentrations of BEA, ENA, and ENB1 in corn kernels, flours, and flakes were significantly different (Kruskal–Wallis Test, p < 0.05), as well as for BEA, ENA, ENB, and ENB1 in wheat kernels, flours, and noodles (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.05). Furthermore, 59.5% (94/158) and 59.8% (174/291) corn- and wheat-based samples were co-contaminated by at least two mycotoxins, respectively. Positive correlations in concentrations were observed in corn between levels of ENA and ENB1, ENA and ENB, ENA1 and ENB1, as well as in wheat between BEA and ENA, BEA and ENA1, BEA and ENB, BEA and ENB1, ENA and ENA1, ENA and ENB, ENA and ENB1, ENA1 and ENB, ENA1 and ENB1, and ENB and ENB1. These results demonstrate that co-contamination of BEA and enniatins (ENNs) in corn- and wheat-based samples from Shandong, China is very common. More data on the contamination of five mycotoxins in cereal and cereal-based samples nationwide are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Han
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Wenjing Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Jing Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Jin Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Fengqin Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
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Rong X, Sun-Waterhouse D, Wang D, Jiang Y, Li F, Chen Y, Zhao S, Li D. The Significance of Regulatory MicroRNAs: Their Roles in Toxicodynamics of Mycotoxins and in the Protection Offered by Dietary Therapeutics Against Mycotoxin-Induced Toxicity. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 18:48-66. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xue Rong
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Dongxiao Sun-Waterhouse
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
- School of Chemical Sciences; The Univ. of Auckland; Private Bag Auckland 92019 New Zealand
| | - Dan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
- Shandong Inst. of Pomology; Taian Shandong 271000 P. R. China
| | - Yang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Feng Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Yilun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Shancang Zhao
- Central Laboratory of Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Key Laboratory of Test Technology on Food Quality and Safety of Shandong Province; Jinan Shandong 250100 P. R. China
| | - Dapeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
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Fernández-Blanco C, Elmo L, Waldner T, Ruiz MJ. Cytotoxic effects induced by patulin, deoxynivalenol and toxin T2 individually and in combination in hepatic cells (HepG2). Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 120:12-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Fraeyman S, Meyer E, Devreese M, Antonissen G, Demeyere K, Haesebrouck F, Croubels S. Comparative in vitro cytotoxicity of the emerging Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins to porcine intestinal epithelial cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:566-572. [PMID: 30266312 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The emerging Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin (ENN) A, ENN A1, ENN B and ENN B1 gain increasing interest due to their highly prevalent contamination of cereals and cereal products. After oral intake, the gastro-intestinal tract is the first possible site of interaction. In the present in vitro study, the relative cytotoxicity of these mycotoxins towards proliferating and differentiated intestinal porcine epithelial cells of the jejunum (IPEC-J2) was evaluated using flow cytometric viability analysis. IPEC-J2 cells showed the highest sensitivity to BEA and ENN A. In proliferating cells, incubation for 24h with 10 μM BEA caused complete disruption, while the viability percentage declined to 32% after 24h of incubation with 10 μM ENN A. ENN A1 and ENN B1 were less cytotoxic with 87% and 93% viable cells after 24h of incubation with 10 μM ENN A1 and B1, respectively. ENN B was the least cytotoxic since incubation at concentrations up to 100 μM resulted in 83% viable proliferating cells. The same trend was observed for differentiated cells. The limited in vitro cytotoxic effect of ENN B on intestinal cells corroborates previous in vivo findings in broiler chicken in which dietary ENN B had minimal effect on intestinal morphometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Evelyne Meyer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium; Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Kristel Demeyere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Freddy Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Zhao H, Xu X, Lei S, Shao D, Jiang C, Shi J, Zhang Y, Liu L, Lei S, Sun H, Huang Q. Iturin A‐like lipopeptides from
Bacillus subtilis
trigger apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy in Caco‐2 cells. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:6414-6427. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haobin Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Xiaoguang Xu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Shuzhen Lei
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Dongyan Shao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Chunmei Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Junling Shi
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Yawen Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Li Liu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Shuzhen Lei
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
| | - Hui Sun
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
- School of Hospitality Management, Guilin Tourism University Guilin China
| | - Qingsheng Huang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi’an China
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Manyes L, Escrivá L, Ruiz M, Juan-García A. Beauvericin and enniatin B effects on a human lymphoblastoid Jurkat T-cell model. Food Chem Toxicol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Chronic Dietary Intake of Enniatin B in Broiler Chickens Has Low Impact on Intestinal Morphometry and Hepatic Histology, and Shows Limited Transfer to Liver Tissue. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10010045. [PMID: 29346316 PMCID: PMC5793132 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Fusarium mycotoxin enniatin B (ENN B) is a so-called emerging mycotoxin frequently contaminating poultry feed. To investigate the impact of chronic ENN B exposure on animal health, broiler chickens were fed either a diet naturally contaminated with ENN B (2352 µg/kg) or a control diet (135 µg/kg) for 2, 7, 14, or 21 days. ENN B concentrations were determined in plasma and liver using a validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography—tandem mass spectrometry UHPLC-MS/MS method. Liver was evaluated histologically, and the villus length and crypt depth of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were measured. Histopathology of the livers did not reveal major abnormalities. Feeding an ENN B-contaminated diet could possibly inhibit the proliferation of enterocytes in the duodenal crypts, but did not affect villus length, crypt depth, or villus length-crypt depth ratio of the jejunum and ileum. ENN B levels in plasma and liver were significantly higher in the ENN B-fed group and ranged between <25–264 pg/mL and <0.05–0.85 ng/g, respectively. ENN B carry-over rates from feed to liver tissue were 0.005–0.014% and 0.034–0.109% in the ENN B and control group, respectively. Carry-over rates were low and indicated a limited contribution of poultry tissue-derived products to the total dietary ENN B intake for humans. The above results support the opinion of the European Food Safety Authority stating that adverse health effects from ENN B in broiler chickens are unlikely.
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Fan W, Lv Y, Ren S, Shao M, Shen T, Huang K, Zhou J, Yan L, Song S. Zearalenone (ZEA)-induced intestinal inflammation is mediated by the NLRP3 inflammasome. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 190:272-279. [PMID: 28992480 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.09.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
To ascertain whether zearalenone (ZEA) could induce intestinal inflammation and investigate its possible mechanism, we investigated inflammatory cytokine release and the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome after ZEA treatment both in vitro or in vivo. First, intestinal porcine enterocyte cell line (IPEC-J2) cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages were treated with ZEA to detect NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ZEA-induced inflammation was investigated. Then, Balb/c mice were fed a gavage of ZEA, and the disease activity indices (DAIs) and histological analysis were used to assess intestinal inflammation. Our study showed that the mRNA expression of NLRP3 inflammasome, pro-interleukin-1β (pro-IL-1β), and pro-interleukin-18 (pro-IL-18) was up-regulated 0.5- to 1-fold and that the release of IL-1β and IL-18 increased from 48 pg mL-1 to 55 pg mL-1 and 110 pg mL-1 to 145 pg mL-1, respectively. However, ROS inhibitor N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) reduced IL-1β and IL-18 release to 45 pg mL-1 and 108 pg mL-1. Moreover, the same phenomenon was observed in intestinal tissues of ZEA-treated mice. In addition, clinical parameters of treated mice showed stools became loose and contained mucous. In addition, the presence of gross blood stool was found in the last 2 d. Histological analysis showed obvious inflammatory cell infiltration and tissue damage in the colon. These findings uncovered a possible mechanism of intestinal mucosal innate immunity in response to mycotoxin ZEA that ZEA could activate the ROS-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome and, in turn, contribute to the caspase-1-dependent activation of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yanan Lv
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shuai Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Manyu Shao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Tongtong Shen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Kehe Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiyong Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China; Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Institute of Immunology and College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Liping Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China; Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Institute of Immunology and College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Suquan Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Prosperini A, Berrada H, Ruiz MJ, Caloni F, Coccini T, Spicer LJ, Perego MC, Lafranconi A. A Review of the Mycotoxin Enniatin B. Front Public Health 2017; 5:304. [PMID: 29201864 PMCID: PMC5697211 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin enniatin B (ENN B) is a secondary metabolism product by Fusarium fungi. It is a well-known antibacterial, antihelmintic, antifungal, herbicidal, and insecticidal compound. It has been found as a contaminant in several food commodities, particularly in cereal grains, co-occurring also with other mycotoxins. The primary mechanism of action of ENN B is mainly due to its ionophoric characteristics, but the exact mechanism is still unclear. In the last two decades, it has been a topic of great interest since its potent mammalian cytotoxic activity was demonstrated in several mammalian cell lines. Moreover, the co-exposure in vitro with other mycotoxins enhances its toxic potential through synergic effects, depending on the concentrations tested. Despite its clear cytotoxic effect, European Food Safety Authority stated that acute exposure to ENNs, such as ENN B, does not indicate concern for human health, but a concern might be the chronic exposure. However, given the lack of relevant toxicity data, no firm conclusion could be drawn and a risk assessment was not possible. In fact, very few studies have been carried out in vivo and, in these studies, no adverse effects were observed. So, research on toxicological effects induced by ENN B is still on-going. Recently, some studies are dealing with new advances regarding ENN B. This review summarizes the information on biochemical and biological activity of ENN B, focusing on toxicological aspects and on the latest advances in research on ENN B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Prosperini
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Teresa Coccini
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, Toxicology Unit, Maugeri Clinical Scientific Institutes SpA-BS, IRCCS Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Maria Chiara Perego
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Alessandra Lafranconi
- Centro di Studio e Ricerca sulla Sanità Pubblica (CESP), Università Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,Department of International Health, FHML, CAPHRI, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Gruber-Dorninger C, Novak B, Nagl V, Berthiller F. Emerging Mycotoxins: Beyond Traditionally Determined Food Contaminants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7052-7070. [PMID: 27599910 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Modern analytical techniques can determine a multitude of fungal metabolites contaminating food and feed. In addition to known mycotoxins, for which maximum levels in food are enforced, also currently unregulated, so-called "emerging mycotoxins" were shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the relevance of selected emerging mycotoxins to food and feed safety. Acute and chronic toxicity as well as occurrence data are presented for enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. By far not all of the detected compounds are toxicologically relevant at their naturally occurring levels and are therefore of little or no health concern to consumers. Still, gaps in knowledge have been identified for several compounds. These gaps should be closed by the scientific community in the coming years to allow a proper risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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D'Amato A, Volpe R, Vaccaro MC, Terracciano S, Bruno I, Tosolini M, Tedesco C, Pierri G, Tecilla P, Costabile C, Della Sala G, Izzo I, De Riccardis F. Cyclic Peptoids as Mycotoxin Mimics: An Exploration of Their Structural and Biological Properties. J Org Chem 2017; 82:8848-8863. [PMID: 28763612 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b00965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic peptoids have recently emerged as important examples of peptidomimetics for their interesting complexing properties and innate ability to permeate biological barriers. In the present contribution, experimental and theoretical data evidence the intricate conformational and stereochemical properties of five novel hexameric peptoids decorated with N-isopropyl, N-isobutyl, and N-benzyl substituents. Complexation studies by NMR, in the presence of sodium tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate (NaTFPB), theoretical calculations, and single-crystal X-ray analyses indicate that the conformationally stable host/guest metal adducts display architectural ordering comparable to that of the enniatins and beauvericin mycotoxins. Similarly to the natural depsipeptides, the synthetic oligolactam analogues show a correlation between ion transport abilities in artificial liposomes and cytotoxic activity on human cancer cell lines. The reported results demonstrate that the versatile cyclic peptoid scaffold, for its remarkable conformational and complexing properties, can morphologically mimic related natural products and elicit powerful biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Massimo Tosolini
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste , Via Giorgieri, 1, Trieste 34127, Italy
| | | | | | - Paolo Tecilla
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste , Via Giorgieri, 1, Trieste 34127, Italy
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Fraeyman S, Croubels S, Devreese M, Antonissen G. Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070228. [PMID: 28718805 PMCID: PMC5535175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Effect of Fusarium-Derived Metabolites on the Barrier Integrity of Differentiated Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2). Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8110345. [PMID: 27869761 PMCID: PMC5127141 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human, animal and plant pathogen Fusarium, which contaminates agricultural commodities worldwide, produces numerous secondary metabolites. An example is the thoroughly-investigated deoxynivalenol (DON), which severely impairs gastrointestinal barrier integrity. However, to date, the toxicological profile of other Fusarium-derived metabolites, such as enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, apicidin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, equisetin and bikaverin, are poorly characterized. Thus we examined their effects—as metabolites alone and as metabolites in combination with DON—on the intestinal barrier function of differentiated intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) over 72 h. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured at 24-h intervals, followed by evaluation of cell viability using neutral red (NR) assay. Enniatins A, A1, B and B1, apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin significantly reduced TEER. Moniliformin, equisetin, bikaverin and rubrofusarin had no effect on TEER. In the case of apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin, TEER reductions were further substantiated by the addition of otherwise no-effect DON concentrations. In all cases, viability was unaffected, confirming that TEER reductions were not due to compromised viability. Considering the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination and the diseases associated with intestinal barrier disruption, consumption of contaminated food or feed may have substantial health implications.
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Yoshinari T, Suzuki Y, Sugita-Konishi Y, Ohnishi T, Terajima J. Occurrence of beauvericin and enniatins in wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market, and their co-contamination with type B trichothecene mycotoxins. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1620-1626. [PMID: 27579623 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1228126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The contamination levels of beauvericin and four enniatins, A, A1, B and B1, in 207 samples of wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market were determined by an analytical method based on LC-MS/MS. The toxins were extracted from samples with acetonitrile-water (85:15, v/v) and then purified with C18 cartridges. The method was validated in a single laboratory using spiked samples at two levels; the recovery of the five toxins ranged from 91.1% to 113.8%. Enniatin B was frequently detected in imported wheat flour (81.8%) and domestic wheat flour (85.6%), and the highest concentration of enniatin B was present in a domestic wheat sample (633 μg kg-1). In corn grits, beauvericin was found in 34% of the samples, but enniatins were not detected at all. The maximum concentration of beauvericin in corn grits was 26.1 μg kg-1. Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in the same samples were determined by a method using an immunoaffinity column. Co-contamination of deoxynivalenol and enniatins was observed in 61% of the imported wheat samples and in 58% of the domestic wheat samples. These results suggest the need for a risk assessment for cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins in Japan and a study on the synergistic effect of deoxynivalenol and enniatins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuiko Suzuki
- b Department of Food and Life Science , Azabu University , Kanagawa , Japan
| | | | | | - Jun Terajima
- a National Institute of Health Sciences , Tokyo , Japan
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Wu T, Lv H, Wang F, Wang Y. Characterization of Polyphenols from Lycium ruthenicum Fruit by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS(E) and Their Antioxidant Activity in Caco-2 Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:2280-8. [PMID: 26963650 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The fruit of Lycium ruthenicum Murr. (LRF) has long been used in folk medicine. Nevertheless, detailed information related to its polyphenol compositions remains scarce. In this study, we confirmed that the total phenolic and anthocyanin contents of LRF fruit extracts (LRFEs) were 4906.5 ± 60.6 mg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g DW and 787.6 ± 34.1 mg of cyanindin-3-glucoside equivalents/100 g DW, respectively. A characterization of LRFEs was performed by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry using an MS(E) data acquisition. A total of 26 polyphenols were tentatively identified, of which 19 represent the first reports of these polyphenols in LRFEs. Furthermore, the cellular antioxidant array showed that LRFEs could protect Caco-2 cells against H2O2-induced oxidative damage based on microscopic fluorometric imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Food Bio-technology, School of Food and Bioengineering, Xihua University , Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Haiyang Lv
- Institute of Agro-products Processing Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, China
| | - Fengzhong Wang
- Institute of Agro-products Processing Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Xi'an Manareco New Materials Co. Ltd. , Xi'an, 710086, China
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