Anaerobic microbial mobilization and biotransformation of arsenate adsorbed onto activated alumina

The biotransformation of arsenic by spent mushroom compost - An effective bioremediation agent

Spent mushroom compost (SMC) is a lignocellulose-rich waste material commonly used in the passive treatment of heavy metal-contaminated environments. In this study, we investigated the bioremediation potential of SMC against an inorganic form of arsenic, examining the individual abiotic and biotic transformations carried out by SMC. We demonstrated, that key SMC physiological groups of bacteria (denitrifying, cellulolytic, sulfate-reducing, and heterotrophic) are resistant to arsenites and arsenates, while the microbial community in SMC is also able to oxidize As(III) and reduce As(V) in respiratory metabolisms, although the SMC did not contain any As. We showed, that cooperation between arsenate and sulfate-reducing bacteria led to the precipitation of As_xS_y. We also found evidence of the significant role organic acids may play in arsenic complexation, and we demonstrated the occurrence of As-binding proteins in the SMC. Furthermore, we confirmed, that biofilm produced by the microbial community in SMC was able to trap As(V) ions. We postulated, that the above-mentioned transformations are responsible for the sorption efficiency of As(V) (up to 25%) and As(III) (up to 16%), as well as the excellent buffering properties of SMC observed in the sorption experiments.

Microbially Mediated Methylation of Arsenic in the Arsenic-Rich Soils and Sediments of Jianghan Plain

Almost nothing is known about the activities and diversities of microbial communities involved in As methylation in arsenic-rich shallow and deep sediments; the correlations between As biomethylation and environmental parameters also remain to be elucidated. To address these issues, we collected 9 arsenic-rich soil/sediment samples from the depths of 1, 30, 65, 95, 114, 135, 175, 200, and 223 m in Jianghan Plain, China. We used microcosm assays to determine the As-methylating activities of the microbial communities in the samples. To exclude false negative results, we amended the microcosms with 0.2 mM As(III) and 20.0 mM lactate. The results indicated that the microbial communities in all of the samples significantly catalyzed arsenic methylation. The arsM genes were detectable from all the samples with the exception of 175 m, and 90 different arsM genes were identified. All of these genes code for new or new-type ArsM proteins, suggesting that new As-methylating microorganisms are widely distributed in the samples from shallow to deep sediments. To determine whether microbial biomethylation of As occurs in the sediments under natural geochemical conditions, we conducted microcosm assays without exogenous As and carbons. After 80.0 days of incubation, approximately 4.5–15.5 μg/L DMAs^V were detected in all of the microcosms with the exception of that from 30 m, and 2.0–9.0 μg/L MMAs^V were detected in the microcosms of 65, 114, 135, 175, 200, and 223 m; moreover, approximately 18.7–151.5 μg/L soluble As(V) were detected from the nine sediment samples. This suggests that approximately 5.3, 0, 8.1, 28.9, 18.0, 8.7, 13.8, 10.2, and 14.9% of total dissolved As were methylated by the microbial communities in the sediment samples from 1, 30, 65, 95, 114, 135, 175, 200, and 223 m, respectively. The concentrations of biogenic DMAs^V show significant positive correlations with the depths of sediments, and negative correlations with the environmental NH₄⁺ and NaCl concentrations, but show no significant correlations with other environmental parameters, such as NO₃^-, SO₄²⁺, TOC, TON, Fe, Sb, Cu, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, and Al. This work helps to better understand the biogeochemical cycles of arsenic in arsenic-rich shallow and deep sediments.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) leaching behavior and surface chemistry changes in response to pH and O2

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a material widely used in electronic devices. Disposal of electronic waste containing GaAs in municipal solid waste landfills raises concerns about the public health and ecological risks associated with the potential release of toxic arsenic (As) species. In this study, different tests were performed to investigate the leaching behavior of particulate GaAs in aqueous solutions. In the U.S. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) and California Waste Extraction Test (WET), the concentrations of As released from the GaAs particles were about 2.6-2.8-fold higher than the regulatory limit (5 mg/L). A much higher As concentration (72 mg/L), accounting for as much as 15.4% of the initial As in GaAs, was solubilized in a pH-7.6 synthetic landfill leachate under ambient atmosphere after 120 days. Additional tests performed to evaluate the dissolution of GaAs under a range of redox conditions, pH levels, ionic strength, and presence of organic constituents commonly found in landfills revealed that oxic environments and mildly alkaline conditions (pH 8.1-8.5) promote release of As (chiefly arsenite) and gallium species to the surrounding aqueous environment. The rate of As release in long-term exposure experiments was initially constant but later progressively diminished, likely due to the formation of a passivating layer on the surface of GaAs consisting of corrosion products rich in poorly soluble gallium oxides (Ga₂O₃ and Ga(OH)₃). This hypothesis was confirmed by surface analysis of GaAs particles subjected to leaching using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). These findings suggest that further research is needed to assess the potential release of toxic As from electronic waste in municipal landfills.

Leaching of cadmium and tellurium from cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar panels under simulated landfill conditions

A crushed non-encapsulated CdTe thin-film solar cell was subjected to two standardized batch leaching tests (i.e., Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) and California Waste Extraction Test (WET)) and to a continuous-flow column test to assess cadmium (Cd) and tellurium (Te) dissolution under conditions simulating the acidic- and the methanogenic phases of municipal solid waste landfills. Low levels of Cd and Te were solubilized in both batch leaching tests (<8.2% and <3.6% of added Cd and Te, respectively). On the other hand, over the course of 30days, 73% of the Cd and 21% of the Te were released to the synthetic leachate of a continuous-flow column simulating the acidic landfill phase. The dissolved Cd concentration was 3.24-fold higher than the TCLP limit (1mgL^-1), and 650-fold higher than the maximum contaminant level established by the US-EPA for this metal in drinking water (0.005mgL^-1). In contrast, the release of Cd and Te to the effluent of the continuous-flow column simulating the methanogenic phase of a landfill was negligible. The remarkable difference in the leaching behavior of CdTe in the columns is related to different aqueous pH and redox conditions promoted by the microbial communities in the columns, and is in agreement with thermodynamic predictions.

Functions and Unique Diversity of Genes and Microorganisms Involved in Arsenite Oxidation from the Tailings of a Realgar Mine

The tailings of the Shimen realgar mine have unique geochemical features. Arsenite oxidation is one of the major biogeochemical processes that occurs in the tailings. However, little is known about the functional and molecular aspects of the microbial community involved in arsenite oxidation. Here, we fully explored the functional and molecular features of the microbial communities from the tailings of the Shimen realgar mine. We collected six samples of tailings from sites A, B, C, D, E, and F. Microcosm assays indicated that all of the six sites contain both chemoautotrophic and heterotrophic arsenite-oxidizing microorganisms; their activities differed considerably from each other. The microbial arsenite-oxidizing activities show a positive correlation with soluble arsenic concentrations. The microbial communities of the six sites contain 40 phyla of bacteria and 2 phyla of archaea that show extremely high diversity. Soluble arsenic, sulfate, pH, and total organic carbon (TOC) are the key environmental factors that shape the microbial communities. We further identified 114 unique arsenite oxidase genes from the samples; all of them code for new or new-type arsenite oxidases. We also isolated 10 novel arsenite oxidizers from the samples, of which 4 are chemoautotrophic and 6 are heterotrophic. These data highlight the unique diversities of the arsenite-oxidizing microorganisms and their oxidase genes from the tailings of the Shimen realgar mine. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the functional and molecular features of microbial communities from the tailings of a realgar mine.

IMPORTANCE

This study focused on the functional and molecular characterizations of microbial communities from the tailings of the Shimen realgar mine. We fully explored, for the first time, the arsenite-oxidizing activities and the functional gene diversities of microorganisms from the tailings, as well as the correlation of the microbial activities/diversities with environmental factors. The findings of this study help us to better understand the diversities of the arsenite-oxidizing bacteria and the geochemical cycle of arsenic in the tailings of the Shimen realgar mine and gain insights into the microbial mechanisms by which the secondary minerals of the tailings were formed. This work also offers a set of unique arsenite-oxidizing bacteria for basic research of the molecular regulation of arsenite oxidation in bacterial cells and for the environmentally friendly bioremediation of arsenic-contaminated groundwater.

Biomineralization of arsenate to arsenic sulfides is greatly enhanced at mildly acidic conditions

Arsenic (As) is an important water contaminant due to its high toxicity and widespread occurrence. Arsenic-sulfide minerals (ASM) are formed during microbial reduction of arsenate (As(V)) and sulfate (SO4(2-)). The objective of this research is to study the effect of the pH on the removal of As due to the formation of ASM in an iron-poor system. A series of batch experiments was used to study the reduction of SO4(2-) and As(V) by an anaerobic biofilm mixed culture in a range of pH conditions (6.1-7.2), using ethanol as the electron donor. Total soluble concentrations and speciation of S and As were monitored. Solid phase speciation of arsenic was characterized by x-ray adsorption spectroscopy (XAS). A marked decrease of the total aqueous concentrations of As and S was observed in the inoculated treatments amended with ethanol, but not in the non-inoculated controls, indicating that the As-removal was biologically mediated. The pH dramatically affected the extent and rate of As removal, as well as the stoichiometric composition of the precipitate. The amount of As removed was 2-fold higher and the rate of the As removal was up to 17-fold greater at pH 6.1 than at pH 7.2. Stoichiometric analysis and XAS results confirmed the precipitate was composed of a mixture of orpiment and realgar, and the proportion of orpiment in the sample increased with increasing pH. The results taken as a whole suggest that ASM formation is greatly enhanced at mildly acidic pH conditions.

Arsenic waste management: a critical review of testing and disposal of arsenic-bearing solid wastes generated during arsenic removal from drinking water

Water treatment technologies for arsenic removal from groundwater have been extensively studied due to widespread arsenic contamination of drinking water sources. Central to the successful application of arsenic water treatment systems is the consideration of appropriate disposal methods for arsenic-bearing wastes generated during treatment. However, specific recommendations for arsenic waste disposal are often lacking or mentioned as an area for future research and the proper disposal and stabilization of arsenic-bearing waste remains a barrier to the successful implementation of arsenic removal technologies. This review summarizes current disposal options for arsenic-bearing wastes, including landfilling, stabilization, cow dung mixing, passive aeration, pond disposal, and soil disposal. The findings from studies that simulate these disposal conditions are included and compared to results from shorter, regulatory tests. In many instances, short-term leaching tests do not adequately address the range of conditions encountered in disposal environments. Future research directions are highlighted and include establishing regulatory test conditions that align with actual disposal conditions and evaluating nonlandfill disposal options for developing countries.

Apple peels--a versatile biomass for water purification?

The presence of anions such as chromate, arsenate, and arsenite in drinking water is a major health concern in many parts of the world due to their high toxicity. Removal of such anions from water using low cost biomass is an efficient and affordable treatment process. Owing to the easy availability and biodegradability, we chose to use apple peel as a substrate for our investigations. Zirconium cations were immobilized onto the apple peel surface and used for the extraction of anions. Zirconium loaded apple peels were used to extract anions such as phosphate, arsenate, arsenite, and chromate ions from aqueous solutions. The presence of Zr cations on the apple peel surface was characterized using XPS. The modified adsorbent was characterized using SEM, EDS, and FT-IR. Zr treated apple peels showed efficient adsorption toward AsO2(-) (15.64 mg/g), AsO4(3-) (15.68 mg/g), Cr2O7(2-) (25.28 mg/g), and PO4(3-) (20.35 mg/g) anions. The adsorption and desorption studies revealed the adsorption mechanism involves electrostatic interactions. Anion removal efficiency was estimated by batch adsorption studies. Adsorption kinetic parameters for all anions at different concentrations were described using pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order rate equations. Langumir and Freundlich isotherms were used to validate our adsorption data. Arsenate and chromate anions were strongly adsorbed at the pH range from 2 to 6, while arsenite was extracted efficiently between pH 9 and 10. Overall, the Zr immobilized apple peel is an efficient adsorbent for common anionic pollutants.

Arsenic release from flooded paddy soils is influenced by speciation, Eh, pH, and iron dissolution

Arsenic (As) is highly mobilized when paddy soil is flooded, causing increased uptake of As by rice. We investigated factors controlling soil-to-solution partitioning of As under anaerobic conditions. Changes in As and iron (Fe) speciation due to flooded incubation of two paddy soils (soils A and B) were investigated by HPLC/ICP-MS and XANES. The flooded incubation resulted in a decrease in Eh, a rise in pH, and an increase in the As(III) fraction in the soil solid phase up to 80% of the total As in the soils. The solution-to-soil ratio of As(III) and As(V) (R(L/S)) increased with pH due to the flooded incubation. The R(L/S) for As(III) was higher than that for As(V), indicating that As(III) was more readily released from soil to solution than was As(V). Despite the small differences in As concentrations between the two soils, the amount of As dissolved by anaerobic incubation was lower in soil A. With the development of anaerobic conditions, Fe(II) remained in the soil solid phase as the secondary mineral siderite, and a smaller amount of Fe was dissolved from soil A than from soil B. The dissolution of Fe minerals rather than redox reaction of As(V) to As(III) explained the different dissolution amounts of As in the two paddy soils. Anaerobic incubation for 30 d after the incomplete suppression of microbial activity caused a drop in Eh. However, this decline in Eh did not induce the transformation of As(V) to As(III) in either the soil solid or solution phases, and the dissolution of As was limited. Microbial activity was necessary for the reductive reaction of As(V) to As(III) even when Eh reached the condition necessary for the dominance of As(III). Ratios of released As to Fe from the soils were decreased with incubation time during both anaerobic incubation and abiotic dissolution by sodium ascorbate, suggesting that a larger amount of As was associated with an easily soluble fraction of Fe (hydr) oxide in amorphous phase and/or smaller particles.

The role of denitrification on arsenite oxidation and arsenic mobility in an anoxic sediment column model with activated alumina

Arsenite (As(III)) is the predominant arsenic (As) species in reducing environments. As(III) is less strongly adsorbed than As(V) at circumneutral pH conditions by common non-iron metal oxides in sediments such as those of aluminum. Therefore, oxidation of As(III) to As(V) could contribute to an improved immobilization of As and thus help mitigate As contamination in groundwater. Microbial oxidation of As(III) is known to readily under aerobic conditions, however, the dissolved oxygen (O₂) concentration in groundwater may be limited due to the poor solubility of O₂ and its high chemical reactivity with reduced compounds. Nitrate (NO₃⁻), can be considered as an alternative electron acceptor, which can support oxidation of As(III) to As(V) by denitrifying bacteria. In this study, two up-flow sediment columns packed with activated alumina (AA) were utilized to demonstrate the role of denitrification on the oxidation of As(III) to As(V) and its contribution to improved As adsorption onto AA. One column was supplied with NO₃⁻(C1) and its performance was compared with a control column lacking NO₃⁻(C2). During most of the operation when the pH was in the circumneutral range (days 50-250), the release of arsenic was greater from C2 compared to C1. The effluent As concentrations started increasing on days 60 and 100 in C2 and C1, respectively. Complete breakthrough started on day 200 in C2; whereas in C1, complete breakthrough was never achieved. The effluent and solid phase As speciation was dominated by As(V) in C1, indicating the occurrence of As(III) oxidation due to NO₃⁻; whereas in C2, only As(III) was dominant. This study illustrates a bioremediation or natural attenuation process based on anoxic microbial NO₃⁻-dependent oxidation of As(III) to more readily adsorbed As(V) as a means to enhance the immobilization of As on alumina oxide particles in subsurface environments.

Simultaneous removal of nitrate and arsenic from drinking water sources utilizing a fixed-bed bioreactor system

A novel bioreactor system, consisting of two biologically active carbon (BAC) reactors in series, was developed for the simultaneous removal of nitrate and arsenic from a synthetic groundwater supplemented with acetic acid. A mixed biofilm microbial community that developed on the BAC was capable of utilizing dissolved oxygen, nitrate, arsenate, and sulfate as the electron acceptors. Nitrate was removed from a concentration of approximately 50 mg/L in the influent to below the detection limit of 0.2 mg/L. Biologically generated sulfides resulted in the precipitation of the iron sulfides mackinawite and greigite, which concomitantly removed arsenic from an influent concentration of approximately 200 ug/L to below 20 ug/L through arsenic sulfide precipitation and surface precipitation on iron sulfides. This study showed for the first time that arsenic and nitrate can be simultaneously removed from drinking water sources utilizing a bioreactor system.

Variability of Parameters Involved in Leachate Pollution Index and Determination of LPI from Four Landfills in Malaysia

Landfill sites are potential sources of human and environmental hazards. Leachate produced form these waste dumping sites is heterogeneous and exhibits huge temporal and seasonal variations. Leachate pollution index (LPI) provides an overall pollution potential of a landfill site. The parameters required to calculate LPI from a landfill site are discussed in terms of their variations over time, and their significance has been highlighted in the context of LPI. The LPI values of two semiaerobic and two anaerobic landfill sites in Malaysia have been calculated in this study. Pulau Burung Landfill Site (PBLS) was found to have the highest LPI score while Ampang Jajar Landfill Site (AJLS) showed the lowest LPI as compared to other landfills. It is concluded that LPI value can be used as a tool to assess the leachate pollution potential from landfill sites particularly at places where there is a high risk of leachate migration and pollution of groundwater.

Arsenite and ferrous iron oxidation linked to chemolithotrophic denitrification for the immobilization of arsenic in anoxic environments

The objective of this study was to explore a bioremediation strategy based on injecting NO3- to support the anoxic oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe(II)) and arsenite (As(II)) in the subsurface as a means to immobilize As in the form of arsenate (As(V)) adsorbed onto biogenic ferric (Fe(III)) (hydr)oxides. Continuous flow sand filled columns were used to simulate a natural anaerobic groundwater and sediment system with co-occurring As(III) and Fe(II) in the presence (column SF1) or absence (column SF2) of nitrate, respectively. During operation for 250 days, the average influent arsenic concentration of 567 microg L(-1) was reduced to 10.6 (+/-9.6) microg L(-1) in the effluent of column SF1. The cumulative removal of Fe(II) and As(II) in SF1 was 6.5 to 10-fold higher than that in SF2 Extraction and measurement of the mass of iron and arsenic immobilized on the sand packing of the columns were close to the iron and arsenic removed from the aqueous phase during column operation. The dominant speciation of the immobilized iron and arsenic was Fe(III) and As(V) in SF1, compared with Fe(II) and As(III) in SF2. The speciation was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results indicate that microbial oxidation of As(III) and Fe(II) linked to denitrification resulted in the enhanced immobilization of aqueous arsenic in anaerobic environments by forming Fe(III) (hydr)oxide coated sands with adsorbed As(V).

Impact and application of electron shuttles on the redox (bio)transformation of contaminants: a review

During the last two decades, extensive research has explored the catalytic effects of different organic molecules with redox mediating properties on the anaerobic (bio)transformation of a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds. The accumulated evidence points at a major role of electron shuttles in the redox conversion of several distinct contaminants, both by chemical and biological mechanisms. Many microorganisms are capable of reducing redox mediators linked to the anaerobic oxidation of organic and inorganic substrates. Electron shuttles can also be chemically reduced by electron donors commonly found in anaerobic environments (e.g. sulfide and ferrous iron). Reduced electron shuttles can transfer electrons to several distinct electron-withdrawing compounds, such as azo dyes, polyhalogenated compounds, nitroaromatics and oxidized metalloids, among others. Moreover, reduced molecules with redox properties can support the microbial reduction of electron acceptors, such as nitrate, arsenate and perchlorate. The aim of this review paper is to summarize the results of reductive (bio)transformation processes catalyzed by electron shuttles and to indicate which aspects should be further investigated to enhance the applicability of redox mediators on the (bio)transformation of contaminants.

Biologically mediated mobilization of arsenic from granular ferric hydroxide in anaerobic columns fed landfill leachate

To gain insight on the fate of arsenic (As) from drinking water treatment residuals in landfills, the mobilization of arsenate adsorbed onto granular ferric hydroxide (GFH) was studied in continuous anaerobic columns fed with a synthetic landfill leachate. The release of As was compared in biologically active and abiotic columns. More than 150 days of incubation were required before noteworthy As release occurred. After 400 days of operation, 19% of the As was mobilized as identified species in the biologically active column, which was 25.5-fold greater than that of the abiotic column. Fine colloids accounted for up to 81% of the As released. Arsenite was the predominant species identified in filtered (0.45 microm) effluent samples. Dimethylarsinic acid and monomethylarsonic acid were also observed as metabolites. During column operation, approximately 30% of the iron (hydr)oxide mass was lost and most of the mass loss was attributed to changes in iron mineralogy that could be demonstrated in a batch bioassay. The results indicate that As-laden GFH residuals from drinking water treatment are subject to mobilization in municipal landfills and that biologically mediated changes in the iron mineralogy may play an important role in the mobilization mechanism.

Anoxic oxidation of arsenite linked to denitrification in sludges and sediments

In this study, denitrification linked to the oxidation of arsenite (As(III)) to arsenate (As(V)) was shown to be a widespread microbial activity in anaerobic sludge and sediment samples that were not previously exposed to arsenic contamination. When incubated with 0.5mM As(III) and 10mM NO(3)(-), the anoxic oxidation of As(III) commenced within a few days, achieving specific activities of up to 1.24mmol As(V) formed g(-1) volatile suspended solids d(-1) due to growth (doubling times of 0.74-1.4d). The anoxic oxidation of As(III) was partially to completely inhibited by 1.5 and 5mM As(III), respectively. Inhibition was minimized by adding As(III) adsorbed onto activated aluminum (AA). The oxidation of As(III) was shown to be linked to the complete denitrification of NO(3)(-) to N(2) by demonstrating a significantly enhanced production of N(2) beyond the background endogenous production as a result of adding As(III)-AA to the cultures. The N(2) production corresponded closely the expected stoichiometry of the reaction, 2.5mol As(III) mol(-1)N(2)-N. The oxidation of As(III) linked to the use of common-occurring nitrate as an electron acceptor may be an important missing link in the biogeochemical cycling of arsenic.

Leaching of arsenic from granular ferric hydroxide residuals under mature landfill conditions

Most arsenic bearing solid residuals (ABSR) from water treatment will be disposed in nonhazardous landfills. The lack of an appropriate leaching test to predict arsenic mobilization from ABSR creates a need to evaluate the magnitude and mechanisms of arsenic release under landfill conditions. This work studies the leaching of arsenic and iron from a common ABSR, granular ferric hydroxide, in a laboratory-scale column that simulates the biological and physicochemical conditions of a mature, mixed solid waste landfill. The column operated for approximately 900 days and the mode of transport as well as chemical speciation of iron and arsenic changed with column age. Both iron and arsenic were readily mobilized under the anaerobic, reducing conditions. During the early stages of operation, most arsenic and iron leaching (80% and 65%, respectively) was associated with suspended particulate matter, and iron was lost proportionately faster than arsenic. In later stages, while the rate of iron leaching declined, the arsenic leaching rate increased greater than 7-fold. The final phase was characterized by dissolved species leaching. Future work on the development of standard batch leaching tests should take into account the dominant mobilization mechanisms identified in this work: solid associated transport, reductive sorbent dissolution, and microbially mediated arsenic reduction.

Removal of arsenious ion by calcined aluminum oxyhydroxide (boehmite)

Aluminum oxyhydroxide (boehmite, BE) shows adsorption ability of arsenious ion. In this study, we calcined BE in the temperature range 200-1150 degrees C, and examined the amount of arsenious ion adsorbed and adsorption mechanism. As a result, the adsorption amount of arsenious ion by BE calcined at 400 degrees C showed the highest value as compared with those by BE calcined at other temperatures. On the other hand, the amounts of arsenious ion adsorbed onto BE showed lower values at 200, 600, and >1000 degrees C than that by BE before calcination. The amount of surface hydroxyl group of calcined BE showed the highest value at the calcination temperature of 400 degrees C. As a result of X-ray analysis, BE showed boehmite structure at less than the calcination temperature of 300 degrees C, while BE was converted to the transitional state of aluminum oxide at more than 400 degrees C. From the result of the amount of arsenious ion adsorbed and FT-IR, it turned out that calcined BE dissociated water molecule when suspended in the water, hydroxyl group was generated on the surface, and the amount of arsenious ion adsorbed was increased because of the ion exchange of these hydroxyl groups with arsenious ions. It was clarified that an adsorbent with high adsorption ability of arsenious ion was obtained by calcination of BE.

Phytoremediation of landfill leachate

Leachate emissions from landfill sites are of concern, primarily due to their toxic impact when released unchecked into the environment, and the potential for landfill sites to generate leachate for many hundreds of years following closure. Consequently, economically and environmentally sustainable disposal options are a priority in waste management. One potential option is the use of soil-plant based remediation schemes. In many cases, using either trees (including short rotation coppice) or grassland, phytoremediation of leachate has been successful. However, there are a significant number of examples where phytoremediation has failed. Typically, this failure can be ascribed to excessive leachate application and poor management due to a fundamental lack of understanding of the plant-soil system. On balance, with careful management, phytoremediation can be viewed as a sustainable, cost effective and environmentally sound option which is capable of treating 250m(3)ha(-1)yr(-1). However, these schemes have a requirement for large land areas and must be capable of responding to changes in leachate quality and quantity, problems of scheme establishment and maintenance, continual environmental monitoring and seasonal patterns of plant growth. Although the fundamental underpinning science is well understood, further work is required to create long-term predictive remediation models, full environmental impact assessments, a complete life-cycle analysis and economic analyses for a wide range of landfill scenarios.