Structure, Chemical Composition, And Reactivity Correlations during the In Situ Oxidation of 2-Propanol

Restructuring dynamics of surface species in bimetallic nanoparticles probed by modulation excitation spectroscopy

Restructuring of metal components on bimetallic nanoparticle surfaces in response to the changes in reactive environment is a ubiquitous phenomenon whose potential for the design of tunable catalysts is underexplored. The main challenge is the lack of knowledge of the structure, composition, and evolution of species on the nanoparticle surfaces during reaction. We apply a modulation excitation approach to the X-ray absorption spectroscopy of the 30 atomic % Pd in Au supported nanocatalysts via the gas (H2 and O2) concentration modulation. For interpreting restructuring kinetics, we correlate the phase-sensitive detection with the time-domain analysis aided by a denoising algorithm. Here we show that the surface and near-surface species such as Pd oxides and atomically dispersed Pd restructured periodically, featuring different time delays. We propose a model that Pd oxide formation is preceded by the build-up of Pd regions caused by oxygen-driven segregation of Pd atoms towards the surface. During the H2 pulse, rapid reduction and dissolution of Pd follows an induction period which we attribute to H2 dissociation. Periodic perturbations of nanocatalysts by gases can, therefore, enable variations in the stoichiometry of the surface and near-surface oxides and dynamically tune the degree of oxidation/reduction of metals at/near the catalyst surface.

In Situ/Operando Electrocatalyst Characterization by X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy

During the last decades, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has become an indispensable method for probing the structure and composition of heterogeneous catalysts, revealing the nature of the active sites and establishing links between structural motifs in a catalyst, local electronic structure, and catalytic properties. Here we discuss the fundamental principles of the XAS method and describe the progress in the instrumentation and data analysis approaches undertaken for deciphering X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra. Recent usages of XAS in the field of heterogeneous catalysis, with emphasis on examples concerning electrocatalysis, will be presented. The latter is a rapidly developing field with immense industrial applications but also unique challenges in terms of the experimental characterization restrictions and advanced modeling approaches required. This review will highlight the new insight that can be gained with XAS on complex real-world electrocatalysts including their working mechanisms and the dynamic processes taking place in the course of a chemical reaction. More specifically, we will discuss applications of in situ and operando XAS to probe the catalyst's interactions with the environment (support, electrolyte, ligands, adsorbates, reaction products, and intermediates) and its structural, chemical, and electronic transformations as it adapts to the reaction conditions.

Shape-Controlled Nanoparticles as Anodic Catalysts in Low-Temperature Fuel Cells

The great dependence of the electrocatalytic activity of most electrochemical reactions on the catalytic surface area and specific surface structure is widely accepted. Building on the extensive knowledge already available on single-crystal surfaces, this Perspective discusses the recent progress made in low-temperature fuel cells through the use of the most active shape-controlled noble metal-based nanoparticles. In particular, we will focus on discussing structure-composition-reactivity correlations in methanol, ethanol, and formic acid oxidation reactions and will offer a general vision of future needs.

Catalytic deoxygenation of C18 fatty acid over supported metal Ni catalysts promoted by the basic sites of ZnAl2O4 spinel phase

The supports with various amounts of Zn–Al spinel were synthesized to test catalytic deoxygenation activity of fatty acids, which show that spinel phase increased the basic strength of the catalyst, resulting in a high selectivity to hydrocarbons.

The catalytic evaluation of bimetallic Pd-based nanocatalysts supported on ion exchange resin in nitro and alkyne reduction reactions

A simple protocol to produce bimetallic Pd-based nanocatalysts supported on Amberlite resin is presented. Superior catalytic activity and selectivity in nitro and alkyne reduction reactions was achieved, opening up new possibilities in the development of cheaper and selective catalysts for these important industrial reactions.

Supervised Machine-Learning-Based Determination of Three-Dimensional Structure of Metallic Nanoparticles

Tracking the structure of heterogeneous catalysts under operando conditions remains a challenge due to the paucity of experimental techniques that can provide atomic-level information for catalytic metal species. Here we report on the use of X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy and supervised machine learning (SML) for refining the 3D geometry of metal catalysts. SML is used to unravel the hidden relationship between the XANES features and catalyst geometry. To train our SML method, we rely on ab initio XANES simulations. Our approach allows one to solve the structure of a metal catalyst from its experimental XANES, as demonstrated here by reconstructing the average size, shape, and morphology of well-defined platinum nanoparticles. This method is applicable to the determination of the nanoparticle structure in operando studies and can be generalized to other nanoscale systems. It also allows on-the-fly XANES analysis and is a promising approach for high-throughput and time-dependent studies.

Hägg carbide surfaces induced Pt morphological changes: a theoretical insight

Comprehensive spin-polarized density functional theory (DFT) combined with ab initio molecular dynamic (AIMD) simulations have been performed to explore the structures, energies, and diffusion behavior of platinum on Fe₅C₂ surfaces with importance in Fischer–Tropsch (F–T) catalysis.

Nano-gold diggers: Au-assisted SiO(2)-decomposition and desorption in supported nanocatalysts

An investigation of the thermal stability of size-selected Au nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized via inverse micelle encapsulation and deposited on SiO2(4 nm)/Si(100) is presented. The size and mobility of individual Au NPs after annealing at elevated temperatures in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) was monitored via atomic force microscopy (AFM). An enhanced thermal stability against coarsening and lack of NP mobility was observed up to 1343 K. In addition, a drastic decrease in the average NP height was detected with increasing annealing temperature, which was not accompanied by the sublimation of Au atoms/clusters in UHV. The apparent decrease in the Au NP height observed is assigned to their ability to dig vertical channels in the underlying SiO2 support. More specifically, a progressive reduction in the thickness of the SiO2 support underneath and in the immediate vicinity of the NPs was evidenced, leading to NPs partially sinking into the SiO2 substrate. The complete removal of silicon oxide in small patches was observed to take place around the Au NPs after annealing at 1343 K in UHV. These results reveal a Au-assisted oxygen desorption from the support via reverse oxygen spillover to the NPs.

Metal nanoparticle catalysts beginning to shape-up

The field of heterogeneous catalysis has received a remarkable amount of interest from scientific and industrial perspectives because of its enormous impact on the world's economy: more than 90% of chemical manufacturing processes use catalysts. Catalysts are also essential in converting hazardous waste into less harmful products (car exhaust) and in generating power (fuel cells). Yet in all applications, it remains a challenge to design long lasting, highly active, selective, and environmentally friendly catalytic materials and processes, ideally based on Earth-abundant elements. In addition, the field needs more satisfactory experimental and theoretical approaches to minimize trial and error experiments in catalyst development. Nanocatalysis is one area that is developing rapidly. Researchers have reported striking novel catalytic properties, including greatly enhanced reactivities and selectivities, for nanocatalysts compared to their bulk counterparts. Fully harnessing the power of nanocatalysts requires detailed understanding of the origin of their enhanced performance at the atomic level, which in turn requires fundamental knowledge of the geometric and electronic structures of these complex systems. Numerous studies report on the properties that affect the catalytic performance of metal naoparticles (NPs) such as their size, interaction with their support, and their oxidation state. Much less research elucidates the role played by the NP shape. Complicating the analysis is that the preceding parameters are not independent, since NP size and support will affect which NP shapes are most stable. In addition, we must consider the dynamic nature of NP catalysts and their response to the environment, since the working state of a NP catalyst might not be the state in which the catalyst was prepared, but rather a structural and/or chemical isomer that responded to the particular reaction conditions. In order to address the complexity of real-world catalysts, researchers must undertake a synergistic approach, taking advantage of a variety of in situ and operando experimental methods. With the continuous shrinking of the scale of material systems, researchers require more sensitive experimental probes and computational approaches that work across a wide range of temperatures and chemical environments. This Account provides examples of recent advances in the preparation and characterization of NP catalysts with well-defined shapes. It discusses how to resolve the shape of nanometer-sized catalysts via a combination of microscopy and spectroscopic approaches, and how to follow their evolution in the course of a chemical reaction. Finally, it highlights that, for structure-sensitive reactions, controlled synthesis can tune catalytic properties such as the reaction rates, onset reaction temperature, activity, and selectivity.

In situ study of atomic structure transformations of Pt-Ni nanoparticle catalysts during electrochemical potential cycling

When exposed to corrosive anodic electrochemical environments, Pt alloy nanoparticles (NPs) undergo selective dissolution of the less noble component, resulting in catalytically active bimetallic Pt-rich core-shell structures. Structural evolution of PtNi6 and PtNi3 NP catalysts during their electrochemical activation and catalysis was studied by in situ anomalous small-angle X-ray scattering to obtain insight in element-specific particle size evolution and time-resolved insight in the intraparticle structure evolution. Ex situ high-energy X-ray diffraction coupled with pair distribution function analysis was employed to obtain detailed information on the atomic-scale ordering, particle phases, structural coherence lengths, and particle segregation. Our studies reveal a spontaneous electrochemically induced formation of PtNi particles of ordered Au3Cu-type alloy structures from disordered alloy phases (solid solutions) concomitant with surface Ni dissolution, which is coupled to spontaneous residual Ni metal segregation during the activation of PtNi6. Pt-enriched core-shell structures were not formed using the studied Ni-rich nanoparticle precursors. In contrast, disordered PtNi3 alloy nanoparticles lose Ni more rapidly, forming Pt-enriched core-shell structures with superior catalytic activity. Our X-ray scattering results are confirmed by STEM/EELS results on similar nanoparticles.

In situ coarsening study of inverse micelle-prepared Pt nanoparticles supported on γ-Al2O3: pretreatment and environmental effects

The thermal stability of inverse micelle prepared Pt nanoparticles (NPs) supported on nanocrystalline γ-Al(2)O(3) was monitored in situ under different chemical environments (H(2), O(2), H(2)O) via extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (EXAFS) and ex situ via scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). Drastic differences in the stability of identically synthesized NP samples were observed upon exposure to two different pre-treatments. In particular, exposure to O(2) at 400 °C before high temperature annealing in H(2) (800 °C) was found to result in the stabilization of the inverse micelle prepared Pt NPs, reaching a maximum overall size after moderate coarsening of ∼1 nm. Interestingly, when an analogous sample was pre-treated in H(2) at ∼400 °C, a final size of ∼5 nm was reached at 800 °C. The beneficial role of oxygen in the stabilization of small Pt NPs was also observed in situ during annealing treatments in O(2) at 450 °C for several hours. In particular, while NPs of 0.5 ± 0.1 nm initial average size did not display any significant sintering (0.6 ± 0.2 nm final size), an analogous thermal treatment in hydrogen leads to NP coarsening (1.2 ± 0.3 nm). The same sample pre-dosed and annealed in an atmosphere containing water only displayed moderate sintering (0.8 ± 0.3 nm). Our data suggest that PtO(x) species, possibly modifying the NP/support interface, play a role in the stabilization of small Pt NPs. Our study reveals the enhanced thermal stability of inverse micelle prepared Pt NPs and the importance of the sample pre-treatment and annealing environment in the minimization of undesired sintering processes affecting the catalytic performance of nanosized particles.

Influence of adsorbates on the electronic structure, bond strain, and thermal properties of an alumina-supported Pt catalyst

We describe the results of an X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) study of adsorbate and temperature-dependent alterations of the atomic level structure of a prototypical, noble metal hydrogenation and reforming catalyst: ∼1.0 nm Pt clusters supported on gamma alumina (Pt/γ-Al(2)O(3)). This work demonstrates that the metal-metal (M-M) bonding in these small clusters is responsive to the presence of adsorbates, exhibiting pronounced coverage-dependent strains in the clusters' M-M bonding, with concomitant modifications of their electronic structures. Hydrogen and CO adsorbates demonstrate coverage-dependent bonding that leads to relaxation of the M-M bond strains within the clusters. These influences are partially compensated, and variably mediated, by the temperature-dependent electronic perturbations that arise from cluster-support and adsorbate-support interactions. Taken together, the data reveal a strikingly fluxional system with implications for understanding the energetics of catalysis. We estimate that a 9.1 ± 1.1 kJ/mol strain exists for these clusters under H(2) and that this strain increases to 12.8 ± 1.7 kJ/mol under CO. This change in the energy of the particle is in addition to the different heats of adsorption for each gas (64 ± 3 and 126 ± 2 kJ/mol for H(2) and CO, respectively).

Nano Pinstripes: TiO2 Nanostripe Formation by Nanoparticle-Mediated Pinning of Step Edges

The present scanning tunneling microscopy study describes the high-temperature growth of TiO2 nanostripes with tunable width, orientation, and spacing, mediated by thermally stable micellar Pt and Au NPs deposited on TiO2(110). This phenomenon could not be explained by spillover effects but is based on the preferential stabilization of [11̅0] step edges on TiO2(110) by the metal NPs. Contrary to the behavior of physical-vapor-deposited NPs, which are known to move toward step edges upon annealing, our micellar NPs remain immobile up to 1000 °C. Instead, the mobility of TiO2 step edges toward the micellar NPs, where they become stabilized, is observed. Our findings are relevant to the technological application of nanostructured materials in the fields of catalysis, molecular electronics, and plasmonics.

Evolution of the structure and chemical state of Pd nanoparticles during the in situ catalytic reduction of NO with H2

An in-depth understanding of the fundamental structure of catalysts during operation is indispensable for tailoring future efficient and selective catalysts. We report the evolution of the structure and oxidation state of ZrO(2)-supported Pd nanocatalysts (∼5 nm) during the in situ reduction of NO with H(2) using X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Prior to the onset of the reaction (≤120 °C), a NO-induced redispersion of our initial metallic Pd nanoparticles over the ZrO(2) support was observed, and Pd(δ+) species were detected. This process parallels the high production of N(2)O observed at the onset of the reaction (>120 °C), while at higher temperatures (≥150 °C) the selectivity shifts mainly toward N(2) (∼80%). Concomitant with the onset of N(2) production, the Pd atoms aggregate again into large (6.5 nm) metallic Pd nanoparticles, which were found to constitute the active phase for the H(2)-reduction of NO. Throughout the entire reaction cycle, the formation and stabilization of PdO(x) was not detected. Our results highlight the importance of in situ reactivity studies to unravel the microscopic processes governing catalytic reactivity.