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Jones PD, Molina-Martínez B, Niedworok A, Cesare P. A microphysiological system for parallelized morphological and electrophysiological read-out of 3D neuronal cell culture. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1750-1761. [PMID: 38348692 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00963g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional in vitro models in microfluidic systems are promising tools for studying cell biology, with complex models using multiple cell types combined with high resolution imaging. Neuronal models demand electrical readout of the activity of networks of single neurons, yet classical planar microelectrode arrays struggle to capture extracellular action potentials when neural soma are suspended distant from the microelectrodes. This study introduces sophisticated microfluidic microelectrode arrays, specifically tailored for electrophysiology of 3D neuronal cultures. Using multilayer photolithography of permanent epoxy photoresists, we developed devices having 12 independent culture modules in a convenient format. Each module has two adjacent compartments for hydrogel-based 3D cell culture, with tunnels allowing projection of neurites between compartments. Microelectrodes integrated in the tunnels record action potentials as they pass between the compartments. Mesh ceilings separate the compartments from overlying wells, allowing for simple cell seeding and later nutrient, gas and waste exchange and application of test substances. Using these devices, we have demonstrated 3D neuronal culture, including electrophysiological recording and live imaging. This microphysiological platform will enable high-throughput investigation of neuronal networks for investigation of neurological disorders, neural pharmacology and basic neuroscience. Further models could include cocultures representing multiple brain regions or innervation models of other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D Jones
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany.
| | - Beatriz Molina-Martínez
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany.
| | - Anita Niedworok
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany.
| | - Paolo Cesare
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany.
- Department for Microphysiological Systems, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
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2
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Chen Z, Liang Q, Wei Z, Chen X, Shi Q, Yu Z, Sun T. An Overview of In Vitro Biological Neural Networks for Robot Intelligence. CYBORG AND BIONIC SYSTEMS 2023; 4:0001. [PMID: 37040493 PMCID: PMC10076061 DOI: 10.34133/cbsystems.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro biological neural networks (BNNs) interconnected with robots, so-called BNN-based neurorobotic systems, can interact with the external world, so that they can present some preliminary intelligent behaviors, including learning, memory, robot control, etc. This work aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the intelligent behaviors presented by the BNN-based neurorobotic systems, with a particular focus on those related to robot intelligence. In this work, we first introduce the necessary biological background to understand the 2 characteristics of the BNNs: nonlinear computing capacity and network plasticity. Then, we describe the typical architecture of the BNN-based neurorobotic systems and outline the mainstream techniques to realize such an architecture from 2 aspects: from robots to BNNs and from BNNs to robots. Next, we separate the intelligent behaviors into 2 parts according to whether they rely solely on the computing capacity (computing capacity-dependent) or depend also on the network plasticity (network plasticity-dependent), which are then expounded respectively, with a focus on those related to the realization of robot intelligence. Finally, the development trends and challenges of the BNN-based neurorobotic systems are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Chen
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qian Liang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zihou Wei
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qing Shi
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhiqiang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tao Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 10081, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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3
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Goshi N, Girardi G, da Costa Souza F, Gardner A, Lein PJ, Seker E. Influence of microchannel geometry on device performance and electrophysiological recording fidelity during long-term studies of connected neural populations. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:3961-3975. [PMID: 36111641 PMCID: PMC9639432 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00683a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Compartmentalized microfluidic neural cell culture platforms, which physically separate axons from the neural soma using a series of microchannels, have been used for studying a wide range of pathological conditions and basic neuroscience questions. While each study has different experimental needs, the fundamental design of these devices has largely remained unchanged and a systematic study to establish long-term neural cultures in this format is lacking. Here, we investigate the influence of microchannel geometry and cell seeding density on device performance particularly in the context of long-term studies of synaptically-connected, yet fluidically-isolated neural populations of neurons and glia. Of the different experimental parameters, the microchannel height was the principal determinant of device performance, where the other parameters offer additional degrees of freedom in customizing such devices for specific applications. We condense the effects of these parameters into design rules and demonstrate their utility in engineering a microfluidic neural culture platform with integrated microelectrode arrays. The engineered device successfully recorded from primary rat cortical cells for 59 days in vitro with more than on order of magnitude enhancement in signal-to-noise ratio in the microchannels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Goshi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Gregory Girardi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Felipe da Costa Souza
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Alexander Gardner
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Erkin Seker
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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4
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Parittotokkaporn S. Smartphone generated electrical fields induce axon regrowth within microchannels following injury. Med Eng Phys 2022; 105:103815. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2022.103815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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5
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Hong N, Nam Y. Neurons-on-a-Chip: In Vitro NeuroTools. Mol Cells 2022; 45:76-83. [PMID: 35236782 PMCID: PMC8906998 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2022.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons-on-a-Chip technology has been developed to provide diverse in vitro neuro-tools to study neuritogenesis, synaptogensis, axon guidance, and network dynamics. The two core enabling technologies are soft-lithography and microelectrode array technology. Soft lithography technology made it possible to fabricate microstamps and microfluidic channel devices with a simple replica molding method in a biological laboratory and innovatively reduced the turn-around time from assay design to chip fabrication, facilitating various experimental designs. To control nerve cell behaviors at the single cell level via chemical cues, surface biofunctionalization methods and micropatterning techniques were developed. Microelectrode chip technology, which provides a functional readout by measuring the electrophysiological signals from individual neurons, has become a popular platform to investigate neural information processing in networks. Due to these key advances, it is possible to study the relationship between the network structure and functions, and they have opened a new era of neurobiology and will become standard tools in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nari Hong
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), Daegu 42988, Korea
| | - Yoonkey Nam
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- KAIST Institute for Institute for Health Science and Technology, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea
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Maisonneuve BGC, Libralesso L, Miny L, Batut A, Rontard J, Gleyzes M, Boudra B, Viera J, Debis D, Larramendy F, Jost V, Honegger T. Deposition chamber technology as building blocks for a standardized brain-on-chip framework. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2022; 8:86. [PMID: 35924033 PMCID: PMC9339542 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-022-00406-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The in vitro modeling of human brain connectomes is key to exploring the structure-function relationship of the central nervous system. Elucidating this intricate relationship will allow better studying of the pathological mechanisms of neurodegeneration and hence result in improved drug screenings for complex neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson diseases. However, currently used in vitro modeling technologies lack the potential to mimic physiologically relevant neural structures. Herein, we present an innovative microfluidic design that overcomes one of the current limitations of in vitro brain models: their inability to recapitulate the heterogeneity of brain regions in terms of cellular density and number. This device allows the controlled and uniform deposition of any cellular population within unique plating chambers of variable size and shape. Through the fine tuning of the hydrodynamic resistance and cell deposition rate, the number of neurons seeded in each plating chamber can be tailored from a thousand up to a million. By applying our design to so-called neurofluidic devices, we offer novel neuro-engineered microfluidic platforms that can be strategically used as organ-on-a-chip platforms for neuroscience research. These advances provide essential enhancements to in vitro platforms in the quest to provide structural architectures that support models for investigating human neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L. Libralesso
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, GSCOP, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - F. Larramendy
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LTM, 38000 Grenoble, France
- NETRI, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - V. Jost
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, GSCOP, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - T. Honegger
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LTM, 38000 Grenoble, France
- NETRI, 69007 Lyon, France
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7
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Functional Characterization of Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Models of the Brain with Microelectrode Arrays. Cells 2021; 11:cells11010106. [PMID: 35011667 PMCID: PMC8750870 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived neuron cultures have emerged as models of electrical activity in the human brain. Microelectrode arrays (MEAs) measure changes in the extracellular electric potential of cell cultures or tissues and enable the recording of neuronal network activity. MEAs have been applied to both human subjects and hPSC-derived brain models. Here, we review the literature on the functional characterization of hPSC-derived two- and three-dimensional brain models with MEAs and examine their network function in physiological and pathological contexts. We also summarize MEA results from the human brain and compare them to the literature on MEA recordings of hPSC-derived brain models. MEA recordings have shown network activity in two-dimensional hPSC-derived brain models that is comparable to the human brain and revealed pathology-associated changes in disease models. Three-dimensional hPSC-derived models such as brain organoids possess a more relevant microenvironment, tissue architecture and potential for modeling the network activity with more complexity than two-dimensional models. hPSC-derived brain models recapitulate many aspects of network function in the human brain and provide valid disease models, but certain advancements in differentiation methods, bioengineering and available MEA technology are needed for these approaches to reach their full potential.
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Bang S, Hwang KS, Jeong S, Cho IJ, Choi N, Kim J, Kim HN. Engineered neural circuits for modeling brain physiology and neuropathology. Acta Biomater 2021; 132:379-400. [PMID: 34157452 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The neural circuits of the central nervous system are the regulatory pathways for feeling, motion control, learning, and memory, and their dysfunction is closely related to various neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the growing demand for the unraveling of the physiology and functional connectivity of the neural circuits, their fundamental investigation is hampered because of the inability to access the components of neural circuits and the complex microenvironment. As an alternative approach, in vitro human neural circuits show principles of in vivo human neuronal circuit function. They allow access to the cellular compartment and permit real-time monitoring of neural circuits. In this review, we summarize recent advances in reconstituted in vitro neural circuits using engineering techniques. To this end, we provide an overview of the fabrication techniques and methods for stimulation and measurement of in vitro neural circuits. Subsequently, representative examples of in vitro neural circuits are reviewed with a particular focus on the recapitulation of structures and functions observed in vivo, and we summarize their application in the study of various brain diseases. We believe that the in vitro neural circuits can help neuroscience and the neuropharmacology. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Despite the growing demand to unravel the physiology and functional connectivity of the neural circuits, the studies on the in vivo neural circuits are frequently limited due to the poor accessibility. Furthermore, single neuron-based analysis has an inherent limitation in that it does not reflect the full spectrum of the neural circuit physiology. As an alternative approach, in vitro engineered neural circuit models have arisen because they can recapitulate the structural and functional characteristics of in vivo neural circuits. These in vitro neural circuits allow the mimicking of dysregulation of the neural circuits, including neurodegenerative diseases and traumatic brain injury. Emerging in vitro engineered neural circuits will provide a better understanding of the (patho-)physiology of neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seokyoung Bang
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong Seob Hwang
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Sohyeon Jeong
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Il-Joo Cho
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea; Yonsei-KIST Convergence Research Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Nakwon Choi
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jongbaeg Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hong Nam Kim
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Männik J, Teshima TF, Wolfrum B, Yang D. Lab-on-a-chip based mechanical actuators and sensors for single-cell and organoid culture studies. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 2021; 129:210905. [PMID: 34103765 PMCID: PMC8175090 DOI: 10.1063/5.0051875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
All living cells constantly experience and respond to mechanical stresses. The molecular networks that activate in cells in response to mechanical stimuli are yet not well-understood. Our limited knowledge stems partially from the lack of available tools that are capable of exerting controlled mechanical stress to individual cells and at the same time observing their responses at subcellular to molecular resolution. Several tools such as rheology setups, micropipetes, and magnetic tweezers have been used in the past. While allowing to quantify short-time viscoelastic responses, these setups are not suitable for long-term observations of cells and most of them have low throughput. In this Perspective, we discuss lab-on-a-chip platforms that have the potential to overcome these limitations. Our focus is on devices that apply shear, compressive, tensile, and confinement derived stresses to single cells and organoid cultures. We compare different design strategies for these devices and highlight their advantages, drawbacks, and future potential. While the majority of these devices are used for fundamental research, some of them have potential applications in medical diagnostics and these applications are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaan Männik
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
| | | | | | - Da Yang
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
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10
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Raj V, Jagadish C, Gautam V. Understanding, engineering, and modulating the growth of neural networks: An interdisciplinary approach. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2021; 2:021303. [PMID: 38505122 PMCID: PMC10903502 DOI: 10.1063/5.0043014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
A deeper understanding of the brain and its function remains one of the most significant scientific challenges. It not only is required to find cures for a plethora of brain-related diseases and injuries but also opens up possibilities for achieving technological wonders, such as brain-machine interface and highly energy-efficient computing devices. Central to the brain's function is its basic functioning unit (i.e., the neuron). There has been a tremendous effort to understand the underlying mechanisms of neuronal growth on both biochemical and biophysical levels. In the past decade, this increased understanding has led to the possibility of controlling and modulating neuronal growth in vitro through external chemical and physical methods. We provide a detailed overview of the most fundamental aspects of neuronal growth and discuss how researchers are using interdisciplinary ideas to engineer neuronal networks in vitro. We first discuss the biochemical and biophysical mechanisms of neuronal growth as we stress the fact that the biochemical or biophysical processes during neuronal growth are not independent of each other but, rather, are complementary. Next, we discuss how utilizing these fundamental mechanisms can enable control over neuronal growth for advanced neuroengineering and biomedical applications. At the end of this review, we discuss some of the open questions and our perspectives on the challenges and possibilities related to controlling and engineering the growth of neuronal networks, specifically in relation to the materials, substrates, model systems, modulation techniques, data science, and artificial intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidur Raj
- Department of Electronic Materials Engineering, Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | | | - Vini Gautam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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11
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Behm LVJ, Gerike S, Grauel MK, Uhlig K, Pfisterer F, Baumann W, Bier FF, Duschl C, Kirschbaum M. Micropatterned Thermoresponsive Cell Culture Substrates for Dynamically Controlling Neurite Outgrowth and Neuronal Connectivity in Vitro. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2019; 2:2853-2861. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.9b00246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura V. J. Behm
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Susanna Gerike
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - M. Katharina Grauel
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Uhlig
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Felix Pfisterer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Werner Baumann
- Chair for Biophysics, University of Rostock, Gertrudenstr. 11a, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Frank F. Bier
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Claus Duschl
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Michael Kirschbaum
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Potsdam IZI-BB, Am Muehlenberg 13, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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12
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Holloway PM, Hallinan GI, Hegde M, Lane SIR, Deinhardt K, West J. Asymmetric confinement for defining outgrowth directionality. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:1484-1489. [PMID: 30899932 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00078j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Directional connectivity is required to develop accurate in vitro models of the nervous system. This research investigated the interaction of murine neuronal outgrowths with asymmetric microstructured geometries to provide insights into the mechanisms governing unidirectional outgrowth bias. The structures were designed using edge-guidance and critical turning angle principles to study different prohibitive to permissive edge-guidance ratios. The different structures enable outgrowth in the permissive direction, while reducing outgrowth in the prohibitive direction. Outgrowth bias was probabilistic in nature, requiring multiple structures for effective unidirectional bias in primary hippocampal cultures at 14 days in vitro. Arrowhead structures with acute posterior corners were optimal, enabling 100% unidirectional outgrowth bias by virtue of re-routing and delay effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Holloway
- Cancer Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK.
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13
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Alam MK, Koomson E, Zou H, Yi C, Li CW, Xu T, Yang M. Recent advances in microfluidic technology for manipulation and analysis of biological cells (2007–2017). Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1044:29-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.06.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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14
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Forró C, Thompson-Steckel G, Weaver S, Weydert S, Ihle S, Dermutz H, Aebersold MJ, Pilz R, Demkó L, Vörös J. Modular microstructure design to build neuronal networks of defined functional connectivity. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 122:75-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.08.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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15
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16
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Prox J, Smith T, Holl C, Chehade N, Guo L. Integrated biocircuits: engineering functional multicellular circuits and devices. J Neural Eng 2018; 15:023001. [DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aaa906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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17
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Design of Cultured Neuron Networks in vitro with Predefined Connectivity Using Asymmetric Microfluidic Channels. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15625. [PMID: 29142321 PMCID: PMC5688062 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15506-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The architecture of neuron connectivity in brain networks is one of the basic mechanisms by which to organize and sustain a particular function of the brain circuitry. There are areas of the brain composed of well-organized layers of neurons connected by unidirectional synaptic connections (e.g., cortex, hippocampus). Re-engineering of the neural circuits with such a heterogeneous network structure in culture may uncover basic mechanisms of emergent information functions of these circuits. In this study, we present such a model designed with two subpopulations of primary hippocampal neurons (E18) with directed connectivity grown in a microfluidic device with asymmetric channels. We analysed and compared neurite growth in the microchannels with various shapes that promoted growth dominantly in one direction. We found an optimal geometric shape features of the microchannels in which the axons coupled two chambers with the neurons. The axons grew in the promoted direction and formed predefined connections during the first 6 days in vitro (DIV). The microfluidic devices were coupled with microelectrode arrays (MEAs) to confirm unidirectional spiking pattern propagation through the microchannels between two compartments. We found that, during culture development, the defined morphological and functional connectivity formed and was maintained for up to 25 DIV.
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18
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Microfluidic neurite guidance to study structure-function relationships in topologically-complex population-based neural networks. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28384. [PMID: 27328705 PMCID: PMC4916598 DOI: 10.1038/srep28384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system is a dense, layered, 3D interconnected network of populations of neurons, and thus recapitulating that complexity for in vitro CNS models requires methods that can create defined topologically-complex neuronal networks. Several three-dimensional patterning approaches have been developed but none have demonstrated the ability to control the connections between populations of neurons. Here we report a method using AC electrokinetic forces that can guide, accelerate, slow down and push up neurites in un-modified collagen scaffolds. We present a means to create in vitro neural networks of arbitrary complexity by using such forces to create 3D intersections of primary neuronal populations that are plated in a 2D plane. We report for the first time in vitro basic brain motifs that have been previously observed in vivo and show that their functional network is highly decorrelated to their structure. This platform can provide building blocks to reproduce in vitro the complexity of neural circuits and provide a minimalistic environment to study the structure-function relationship of the brain circuitry.
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19
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Renault R, Durand JB, Viovy JL, Villard C. Asymmetric axonal edge guidance: a new paradigm for building oriented neuronal networks. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:2188-91. [PMID: 27225661 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00479b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel kind of directional axon guides for brain-on-a-chip applications. Contrarily to previous works, the directionality in our design is created by rerouting axons growing in the unwanted direction back to their original compartment while leaving the other growth direction unaffected. This design yields state-of-the-art levels of directionality without the disadvantages of previously reported technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Renault
- UMR 168 Physico-Chimie Curie, CNRS, PSL Research University, Institut Curie, 75005, Paris, France.
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20
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Aebersold MJ, Dermutz H, Forró C, Weydert S, Thompson-Steckel G, Vörös J, Demkó L. “Brains on a chip”: Towards engineered neural networks. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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21
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Maisonneuve BGC, Honegger T, Cordeiro J, Lecarme O, Thiry T, Fuard D, Berton K, Picard E, Zelsmann M, Peyrade D. Rapid mask prototyping for microfluidics. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2016; 10:024103. [PMID: 27014396 PMCID: PMC4788606 DOI: 10.1063/1.4943124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
With the rise of microfluidics for the past decade, there has come an ever more pressing need for a low-cost and rapid prototyping technology, especially for research and education purposes. In this article, we report a rapid prototyping process of chromed masks for various microfluidic applications. The process takes place out of a clean room, uses a commercially available video-projector, and can be completed in less than half an hour. We quantify the ranges of fields of view and of resolutions accessible through this video-projection system and report the fabrication of critical microfluidic components (junctions, straight channels, and curved channels). To exemplify the process, three common devices are produced using this method: a droplet generation device, a gradient generation device, and a neuro-engineering oriented device. The neuro-engineering oriented device is a compartmentalized microfluidic chip, and therefore, required the production and the precise alignment of two different masks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - E Picard
- CEA , INAC-SiNAPS, F-38054 Grenoble, France
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22
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Yu Y, Shamsi MH, Krastev DL, Dryden MDM, Leung Y, Wheeler AR. A microfluidic method for dopamine uptake measurements in dopaminergic neurons. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:543-52. [PMID: 26725686 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc01515d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a classical neurotransmitter and dysfunction in its synaptic handling underlies many neurological disorders, including addiction, depression, and neurodegeneration. A key to understanding DA dysfunction is the accurate measurement of dopamine uptake by dopaminergic neurons. Current methods that allow for the analysis of dopamine uptake rely on standard multiwell-plate based ELISA, or on carbon-fibre microelectrodes used in in vivo recording techniques. The former suffers from challenges associated with automation and analyte degradation, while the latter has low throughput and is not ideal for laboratory screening. In response to these challenges, we introduce a digital microfluidic platform to evaluate dopamine homeostasis in in vitro neuron culture. The method features voltammetric dopamine sensors with limit of detection of 30 nM integrated with cell culture sites for multi-day neuron culture and differentiation. We demonstrate the utility of the new technique for DA uptake assays featuring in-line culture and analysis, with a determination of uptake of approximately ∼32 fmol in 10 min per virtual microwell (each containing ∼200 differentiated SH-SY5Y cells). We propose that future generations of this technique will be useful for drug discovery for neurodegenerative disease as well as for a wide range of applications that would benefit from integrated cell culture and electroanalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yu
- Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON M5s 3G9, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Mohtashim H Shamsi
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada and Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St Georg St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Dimitar L Krastev
- Department of Human Biology, University of Toronto, 300 Huron Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3J6, Canada
| | - Michael D M Dryden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St Georg St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Yen Leung
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON M5s 3G9, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
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23
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Varma S, Voldman J. A cell-based sensor of fluid shear stress for microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:1563-73. [PMID: 25648195 PMCID: PMC4443851 DOI: 10.1039/c4lc01369g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Microsystems designed for cell-based studies or applications inherently require fluid handling. Flows within such systems inevitably generate fluid shear stress (FSS) that may adversely affect cell health. Simple assays of cell viability, morphology or growth are typically reported to indicate any gross disturbances to cell physiology. However, no straightforward metric exists to specifically evaluate physiological implications of FSS within microfluidic devices, or among competing microfluidic technologies. This paper presents the first genetically encoded cell sensors that fluoresce in a quantitative fashion upon FSS pathway activation. We picked a widely used cell line (NIH3T3s) and created a transcriptional cell-sensor where fluorescence turns on when transcription of a relevant FSS-induced protein is initiated. Specifically, we chose Early Growth Factor-1 (a mechanosensitive protein) upregulation as the node for FSS detection. We verified our sensor pathway specificity and functionality by noting induced fluorescence in response to chemical induction of the FSS pathway, seen both through microscopy and flow cytometry. Importantly, we found our cell sensors to be inducible by a range of FSS intensities and durations, with a limit of detection of 2 dynes cm(-2) when applied for 30 minutes. Additionally, our cell-sensors proved their versatility by showing induction sensitivity when made to flow through an inertial microfluidic device environment with typical flow conditions. We anticipate these cell sensors to have wide application in the microsystems community, allowing the device designer to engineer systems with acceptable FSS, and enabling the end-user to evaluate the impact of FSS upon their assay of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarvesh Varma
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 36-824, Cambridge, USA.
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24
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Joo S, Kang K, Nam Y. In vitroneurite guidance effects induced by polylysine pinstripe micropatterns with polylysine background. J Biomed Mater Res A 2015; 103:2731-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2014] [Revised: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sunghoon Joo
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering; KAIST; Daejeon 305-701 South Korea
| | - Kyungtae Kang
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research; KAIST; Daejeon 305-701 South Korea
| | - Yoonkey Nam
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering; KAIST; Daejeon 305-701 South Korea
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25
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Miled A. Thermal effect of dielectrophoresis manipulation on cerebrospinal fluid. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2015; 2014:6187-90. [PMID: 25571410 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2014.6945042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This paper introduces an investigation on the thermal effects of dielectrophoresis on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It highlights the temperature propagation in CSF according to applied voltage and generated electrical field in a limited area of the brain. Through the described study, the temperature increase is considerable in the close surrounding area of electrodes where applied voltage goes up to 20 V(rms) in order to generate dielectrophoretic forces for CSF sampling. Matlab simulations detailed in this work are based on the assumption that the propagation of temperature in CSF is linear. The objective of this research is to study the thermal side effects of direct measurements and manipulations of neurotransmitters in the brain versus in-channel measurement of neurotransmitter concentration. Indeed, according to simulation results, if the temperature in the top of electrodes is 46.85 °C then it will decrease only to 45.35 °C at 1 mm away from electrode surface.
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26
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Uzel SGM, Pavesi A, Kamm RD. Microfabrication and microfluidics for muscle tissue models. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 115:279-93. [PMID: 25175338 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2014.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The relatively recent development of microfluidic systems with wide-ranging capabilities for generating realistic 2D or 3D systems with single or multiple cell types has given rise to an extensive collection of platform technologies useful in muscle tissue engineering. These new systems are aimed at (i) gaining fundamental understanding of muscle function, (ii) creating functional muscle constructs in vitro, and (iii) utilizing these constructs a variety of applications. Use of microfluidics to control the various stimuli that promote differentiation of multipotent cells into cardiac or skeletal muscle is first discussed. Next, systems that incorporate muscle cells to produce either 2D sheets or 3D tissues of contractile muscle are described with an emphasis on the more recent 3D platforms. These systems are useful for fundamental studies of muscle biology and can also be incorporated into drug screening assays. Applications are discussed for muscle actuators in the context of microrobotics and in miniaturized biological pumps. Finally, an important area of recent study involves coculture with cell types that either activate muscle or facilitate its function. Limitations of current designs and the potential for improving functionality for a wider range of applications is also discussed, with a look toward using current understanding and capabilities to design systems of greater realism, complexity and functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien G M Uzel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Andrea Pavesi
- Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, BioSystems and Micromechanics, 1 CREATE way, #04-13/14 Enterprise Wing, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, BioSystems and Micromechanics, 1 CREATE way, #04-13/14 Enterprise Wing, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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27
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Kim R, Joo S, Jung H, Hong N, Nam Y. Recent trends in microelectrode array technology for in vitro neural interface platform. Biomed Eng Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s13534-014-0130-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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28
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Fendyur A, Varma S, Lo CT, Voldman J. Cell-based biosensor to report DNA damage in micro- and nanosystems. Anal Chem 2014; 86:7598-605. [PMID: 25001406 PMCID: PMC4144749 DOI: 10.1021/ac501412c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Understanding how newly engineered
micro- and nanoscale materials
and systems that interact with cells impact cell physiology is crucial
for the development and ultimate adoption of such technologies. Reports
regarding the genotoxic impact of forces applied to cells in such
systems that can both directly or indirectly damage DNA emphasize
the need for developing facile methods to assess how materials and
technologies affect cell physiology. To address this need we have
developed a TurboRFP-based DNA damage reporter cell line in NIH-3T3
cells that fluoresce to report genotoxic stress caused by a wide variety
of agents, from chemical genotoxic agents to UV-C radiation. Our biosensor
was successfully implemented in reporting the genotoxic impact of
nanomaterials, demonstrating the ability to assess size dependent
geno- and cyto-toxicity. The biosensor cells can be assayed in a high
throughput, noninvasive manner, with no need for overly sophisticated
equipment or additional reagents. We believe that this open-source
biosensor is an important resource for the community of micro- and
nanomaterials and systems designers and users who wish to evaluate
the impact of systems and materials on cell physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Fendyur
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 36-824, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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29
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Vaillier C, Honegger T, Kermarrec F, Gidrol X, Peyrade D. Comprehensive analysis of human cells motion under an irrotational AC electric field in an electro-microfluidic chip. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95231. [PMID: 24736275 PMCID: PMC3988152 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
AC electrokinetics is a versatile tool for contact-less manipulation or characterization of cells and has been widely used for separation based on genotype translation to electrical phenotypes. Cells responses to an AC electric field result in a complex combination of electrokinetic phenomena, mainly dielectrophoresis and electrohydrodynamic forces. Human cells behaviors to AC electrokinetics remain unclear over a large frequency spectrum as illustrated by the self-rotation effect observed recently. We here report and analyze human cells behaviors in different conditions of medium conductivity, electric field frequency and magnitude. We also observe the self-rotation of human cells, in the absence of a rotational electric field. Based on an analytical competitive model of electrokinetic forces, we propose an explanation of the cell self-rotation. These experimental results, coupled with our model, lead to the exploitation of the cell behaviors to measure the intrinsic dielectric properties of JURKAT, HEK and PC3 human cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarisse Vaillier
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LTM, Grenoble, France; CNRS, LTM, Grenoble, France
| | - Thibault Honegger
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LTM, Grenoble, France; CNRS, LTM, Grenoble, France; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of Amercia
| | - Frédérique Kermarrec
- CEA, Institut de Recherches en Technologies et Sciences pour le Vivant, Grenoble, France
| | - Xavier Gidrol
- CEA, Institut de Recherches en Technologies et Sciences pour le Vivant, Grenoble, France
| | - David Peyrade
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LTM, Grenoble, France; CNRS, LTM, Grenoble, France
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30
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Abstract
In this paper, we introduce a dielectrophoresis (DEP)-based handling method that allows fine 3D manipulation of beads in suspension using a lab on a chip device. The device consists of two layers of linear electrodes on the top and bottom of a microfluidic channel. Each electrode layer has a 53 × 53 donut trap matrix, with traps that are linearly connected into rows along the top, and columns along the bottom of the channel. To address in this matrix a single particle in suspension, we introduce pulsed dielectrophoresis (puDEP) where the AC signal used to induce dielectrophoresis is chopped, such that only beads that are at the intersection of two perpendicular electrodes are constantly polarized. Finally, by combining puDEP and moving dielectrophoresis (mDEP), we introduce a generic application of dielectrophoresis namely moving pulsed dielectrophoresis (mpuDEP) that allows the contactless, micron accuracy, addressable displacement in a 2D array of a single bead in suspension.
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