Vocabulary-use patterns in preschool children: Effects of context and time sampling

The prevalence of relational basic concepts on core vocabulary lists for AAC: is frequency enough?

The selection of appropriate vocabulary is a crucial and challenging aspect of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) intervention. Core vocabulary lists are frequently used to support vocabulary selection for children who require AAC. A vocabulary domain that has garnered limited attention within the AAC literature is relational basic concepts (RBCs). RBCs describe relationships between objects, persons, or situations, and play a pivotal role in language development, communication, and academic success. For the present study, we created a list of 156 RBCs, drawing primarily from assessments that measure basic concept knowledge in preschool and early elementary school students. We examined the overlap of these words on nine core vocabulary lists. We found that most concepts were not represented on any core lists. Additionally, there was relatively little overlap of RBCs between the core lists. These findings suggest that vocabulary selection resources created using exclusively a core vocabulary approach may have limited utility for identifying many concepts that preschool and early elementary students are expected to know and use. Implications for AAC research and practice are discussed with emphasis on the need for further consideration of RBCs within vocabulary selection practice and the field of AAC at large.

Language development in children's natural environments: People, places, and things

Our goal in this chapter is to describe young children's experiences with language by examining three domains-people, places, and things-that define and influence their language input. We highlight how features of each of these three domains could provide useful learning opportunities, as well as how differences in infants' and toddlers' experiences may affect their long-term language skills. However, we ultimately suggest that a full understanding of early environments must move beyond a focus on individual experiences and include the broader systems that shape young children's lives, including both tangible aspects of the environment, such as physical resources or locations, and more hidden factors, such as cultural considerations, community health, or economic constraints.

How Toddlers Use Core and Fringe Vocabulary: What's in an Utterance?

PURPOSE

Selecting vocabulary for preliterate individuals who use augmentative and alternative communication presents multiple challenges, as the number of symbols provided must be balanced with cognitive, motoric, and other needs. Prioritizing certain types of vocabulary thus becomes a necessity. For example, prioritizing core vocabulary-that is, words that are commonly used across a group of people and contexts-is a common practice that attempts to address some of these issues. However, most core vocabulary research to date has narrowly focused on individual word counts, ignoring other critical aspects of language development such as how vocabulary aligns with typical development and how children use core and fringe vocabulary within their utterances.

METHOD

Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze 112 transcripts to describe how typically developing toddlers (aged 2.5 years) use core and fringe vocabulary within their utterances, in reference to a range of commonly used core vocabulary lists.

RESULTS

Results indicated that the proportion of the toddlers' utterances that consisted of only core, only fringe, or core + fringe vocabulary varied dramatically depending on the size of the core vocabulary list used, with smaller core lists yielding few "core-only" utterances. Furthermore, utterances containing both core and fringe vocabulary were both grammatically and semantically superior to utterances containing only core or only fringe vocabulary, as evidenced by measures such as mean length of utterance and total number of words.

CONCLUSION

Thus, relying on word frequency counts is an insufficient basis for selecting vocabulary for aided preliterate communicators.

Is there a 'universal' core? Using semantic primes to select vocabulary across languages in AAC

Core vocabulary lists and vocabulary inventories vary according to language. Lists from one language cannot and should not be assumed to be translatable, as words represent language-specific concepts and grammar. In this manuscript, we (a) present the results of a vocabulary overlap analysis between different published core vocabulary lists in English, Korean, Spanish, and Sepedi; (b) discuss the concept of universal semantic primes as a set of universal concepts that are posited to be language-independent; and (c) provide a list of common words shared across all four languages as exemplars of their semantic primes. The resulting common core words and their corresponding semantic primes can assist families and professionals in thinking about the initial steps in the development of AAC systems for their bilingual/multilingual clients.

Examining core vocabulary with language development for early symbolic communicators

PURPOSE

Core vocabulary lists are frequently used to select vocabulary for early symbolic communicators who require augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). The current study extended existing work by investigating how core vocabulary lists overlap and diverge from typical language development.

METHOD

We investigated when the words on seven core vocabulary lists emerge in typical language development, the composition of the lists based on their parts of speech, and how the composition of the words on the lists compare to the MacArthur Bates Communication Development Inventories (CDI).

RESULT

On average, the words on the seven core vocabulary lists appear after the second year of life in children with typical spoken language development (25, 27, 37, 45, 47, 50, and 66 months). Verbs were the most prevalent part of speech in all but one of the core vocabulary lists. Core vocabulary words made up only a small percentage of words on the CDI.

CONCLUSION

The words on the core vocabulary lists do not emerge until later points in typical lexical development. Focussing on core words when working with early symbolic communicators who require AAC may lead to limited and variable lexicons with wide gaps.

Applying a Developmental Model to Preliterate Aided Language Learning

PURPOSE

Childhood spoken language interventions and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) interventions share a common purpose: maximizing communication and language outcomes. To ensure that interventions for children who require AAC also address expressive language acquisition, this clinical focus article focuses on how to apply a developmental model of language acquisition to guide AAC decision making for preliterate aided communicators, with a particular focus on vocabulary selection.

METHOD

A brief review of early expressive language development is presented, along with arguments for why relying on a developmental model to guide AAC decision making is so critical. A series of detailed examples of how to apply a developmental model to various AAC vocabulary selection approaches are provided, including analyses of how well each approach aligns with pragmatic, semantic, grammatical, and narrative development.

CONCLUSIONS

No single AAC approach for preliterate AAC language learners adequately addresses both immediate and longer-term expressive language needs; every approach has both strengths and weaknesses. Clinical decision making requires an analysis of each approach to ensure that AAC service delivery teams clearly understand the inevitable linguistic gaps, with plans put into place to fill in those gaps with different approaches. Future efforts to improve preliterate AAC service provision should use a developmental model of language as a starting point, in combination with input from families, educators, and clinicians to ensure the feasibility of the chosen approaches.

Frequency of word usage by Hebrew preschoolers: implications for AAC core vocabulary

This study's goal was to inform the selection of the most frequently used words to serve as a reference for core vocabulary selection for Hebrew-speaking children who require AAC. The paper describes the vocabulary used by 12 Hebrew-speaking preschool children with typical development in two different conditions: peer talk, and peer talk with adult mediation. Language samples were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using the CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System) tools to identify the most frequently used words. The top 200 lexemes (all variations of a single word) in the peer talk and adult-mediated peer talk conditions accounted for 87.15% (n = 5008 tokens) and 86.4% (n = 5331 tokens) of the total tokens produced in each language sample (n = 5746, n = 6168), respectively. A substantially overlapping vocabulary of 337 lexemes accounted for up to 87% (n = 10411) of the tokens produced in the composite list (n = 11914). The results indicate that a relatively small set of words represent a large proportion of the words used by the preschoolers across two different conditions. General versus language-specific implications for core vocabulary selection for children in need of AAC devices are discussed.

Core vocabulary for AAC practice from Mandarin Chinese-speaking Taiwanese without disabilities

The purpose of this study was to select a core vocabulary list obtained from Mandarin Chinese-speaking Taiwanese persons without disabilities. Mandarin Chinese is dominant and official language of Taiwan. A total of 28 participants, equally divided among seven age groups, were recruited for the study. In all, 112 samples across different communication contexts were collected. Results indicated that 100 core words selected had coverage of 66.7% of the entire composite sample. The proportion of function words versus content words in the top 100 core words was 11% and 89%, respectively. The core vocabulary was categorized into eight parts of speech, including nouns, pronouns, numbers, adverbs, determiners, prepositions, adjectives, and verbs. Implications, limitations, and further research are discussed.

The Effects of Symbol Format and Psycholinguistic Features on Receptive Syntax Outcomes of Children Without Disability

PURPOSE

The graphic symbol is the foundation of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for many preliterate individuals; however, research has focused primarily on static graphic symbol sequences despite mainstream commercial technologies such as animation. The goal of this study was to compare static and animated symbol sequences across receptive communication outcome measures and psycholinguistic features (e.g., word frequency).

METHOD

A counterbalanced, 2 × 2 × 2 mixed design was used to investigate the effects of symbol format (animated and static), first condition (animated or static), and first experimental task (identification or labeling) on identification accuracy and labeling accuracy of graphic symbol sequences (five symbols) in 24 children with typical development ages 7 and 8 years old. Additionally, three 2 × 2 repeated-measures analyses of variance were conducted using symbol format (animated and static) and (a) word frequency (low, high), (b) imageability (low, high), and (c) concreteness (low, high).

RESULTS

In addition to superior identification and labeling accuracy of animated sequences, a significant interaction between symbol format and the first condition was observed for both experimental tasks. When the animation format was the first condition, then the children's performance improved in the subsequent static condition. Finally, word frequency, imageability, and concreteness ratings for all verbs and prepositions had significant effects on labeling accuracy of verbs and prepositions. Significant interactions between symbol format and psycholinguistic features were also found. For example, highly imageable, animated verbs were labeled with greater accuracy when compared with all other variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Animation technology appears to alleviate some of the burden associated with word- and sentence-level outcomes in children with typical development. Moreover, animation appears to reduce the effects of psycholinguistic features such as word frequency and imageability by increasing the transparency of the symbol. Given the increase in research in this area, speech-language pathologists may consider adopting animated graphic symbols on a case-by-case basis as a tool to augment the learning of word classes in which movement is integral to comprehension.

Identifying the Core Vocabulary for Adults With Complex Communication Needs From the British National Corpus by Analyzing Grouped Frequency Distributions

Purpose This study is aimed to identify the high-frequency vocabulary (HFV), otherwise termed "core vocabulary" for adults with complex communication needs. Method Three major characteristics of the HFV-a relatively small number of different words (NDW), a relatively high word frequency, and a high word commonality across speakers-were examined so as not to lose any candidate words for the HFV. Specifically, instead of applying the traditionally used cutoff word frequency of 0.5‰, a grouped frequency distribution was used to examine the appropriate frequency ranges to determine the HFV candidates. To improve the representativeness of the HFV across ages, social backgrounds, conversation situations, and topics, 330,000 spoken words of 66 adults (29 men and 37 women; M _age = 45.47 years, SD = 16.07) were extracted from the British National Corpus database for analysis. Results A distinct pattern of NDW was observed from the frequency of 0.1‰ in the grouped frequency distribution. In total, 671 words were found to be candidates for the HFV, accounting for 90.94% of the total sample words. After the word commonality analysis indicated at least 80% commonality across speakers, 203 words were selected for the final HFV; accountability was calculated at 80.62%. Conclusions With the innovative word analysis approach, this study provided an HFV list that can be used for a wide range of conversation topics. This method provides a scientific and principled approach to identifying and organizing vocabulary for augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) intervention that does not exist in many AAC resources that promote "core vocabulary" with identifying the source for vocabulary selection.

Core vocabulary lists for young children and considerations for early language development: a narrative review

For early symbolic communicators, acquisition of an initial vocabulary is a critically important achievement that sets the stage for future language development. Children who require augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) rely on others to select and provide these important first words for them. One resource to help guide this process includes published lists of words that may contribute to a core vocabulary for individuals who require AAC. Although some clinicians report that they consider or prioritize core words during the vocabulary selection process, it is not known whether an emphasis on core words will best meet the expressive vocabulary needs of early symbolic communicators. The purposes of this narrative review were to (a) review studies that have developed word lists to inform selection of a core vocabulary for young children who require AAC, (b) compare the words on these lists to the early words used by children with typical development, and (c) consider the implications for vocabulary selection and language development for early symbolic communicators who require AAC. Results suggest that core word lists may under-emphasize many of the types of words that predominate in early expressive vocabulary; these lists may not be the most appropriate resources to guide AAC system design and instruction for early symbolic communicators.

Framework for Selecting Vocabulary for Preliterate Children Who Use Augmentative and Alternative Communication

Purpose Nearly 50% of school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) provide services to school-age children who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). However, many SLPs report having insufficient knowledge in the area of AAC implementation. The objective of this tutorial is to provide clinicians with a framework for supporting 1 area of AAC implementation: vocabulary selection for preliterate children who use AAC. Method This tutorial focuses on 4 variables that clinicians should consider when selecting vocabulary: (a) contexts/environments where the vocabulary can be used, (b) time span during which the vocabulary will be relevant, (c) whether the vocabulary can elicit and maintain interactions with other people, and (d) whether the vocabulary will facilitate developmentally appropriate grammatical structures. This tutorial focuses on the role that these variables play in language development in verbal children with typical development, verbal children with language impairment, and nonverbal children who use AAC. Results Use of the 4 variables highlighted above may help practicing SLPs select vocabulary that will best facilitate language acquisition in preliterate children who use AAC.

Core vocabulary of young children with Down syndrome

The aim of this study was to develop a core vocabulary list for young children with intellectual disabilities between 2 and 7 years of age because data from this population are lacking in core vocabulary literature. Children with Down syndrome are considered one of the most valid reference groups for researching developmental patterns in children with intellectual disabilities; therefore, spontaneous language samples of 30 Dutch children with Down syndrome were collected during three different activities with multiple communication partners (free play with parents, lunch- or snack-time at home or at school, and speech therapy sessions). Of these children, 19 used multimodal communication, primarily manual signs and speech. Functional word use in both modalities was transcribed. The 50 most frequently used core words accounted for 67.2% of total word use; 16 words comprised core vocabulary, based on commonality. These data are consistent with similar studies related to the core vocabularies of preschoolers and toddlers with typical development, although the number of nouns present on the core vocabulary list was higher for the children in the present study. This finding can be explained by manual sign use of the children with Down syndrome and is reflective of their expressive vocabulary ages.

Using peer-mediated instruction to support communication involving a student with autism during mathematics activities: A case study

This study employed an A-B singled subject design to explore the extent to which a peer-mediated intervention supported a first-grade student with autism's usage both in purpose and frequency of a speech-generating device (SGD) during mathematics activities. The intervention involved teaching a peer without a disability to encourage the student with autism to use the SGD during partnered mathematics activities. Our analysis involved visual and descriptive examination of trends and patterns over time, and comparison of means between and within phases. We found during the course of this study that (1) the student with autism's level of overall communication, which included the relevancy of these communicative behaviors, increased; (2) the student with autism's level of spontaneous communication acts increased; and (3) the peer became more independent with supporting the student with autism's communication. Implications for future research and practice are provided.

What We Write about When We Write About AAC: The Past 30 Years of Research and Future Directions

For the past 30 years, the Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) journal has both documented and instigated change in the field of AAC. We reviewed the papers published in the AAC journal from 1985-2014 in order to identify trends in research and publication activities. Intervention research made up the largest proportion of the four types of research (i.e., intervention, descriptive, experimental, and instrument and measurement development) reported in the journal. Intervention research has most commonly focused on the individual with complex communication needs, and most frequently on younger individuals (aged 17 and younger) with developmental disabilities. While much has been learned in the past 30 years, there continues to be a need for high quality research in a large number of areas. There is a special need for reports of interventions with older individuals with complex communication needs as a result of acquired disabilities, and for information on effective interventions for the communication partners of persons with complex communication needs.

Evaluating pictogram prediction in a location-aware augmentative and alternative communication system

This study compared the performance of two statistical location-aware pictogram prediction mechanisms, with an all-purpose (All) pictogram prediction mechanism, having no location knowledge. The All approach had a unique language model under all locations. One of the location-aware alternatives, the location-specific (Spec) approach, made use of specific language models for pictogram prediction in each location of interest. The other location-aware approach resulted from combining the Spec and the All approaches, and was designated the mixed approach (Mix). In this approach, the language models acquired knowledge from all locations, but a higher relevance was assigned to the vocabulary from the associated location. Results from simulations showed that the Mix and Spec approaches could only outperform the baseline in a statistically significant way if pictogram users reuse more than 50% and 75% of their sentences, respectively. Under low sentence reuse conditions there were no statistically significant differences between the location-aware approaches and the All approach. Under these conditions, the Mix approach performed better than the Spec approach in a statistically significant way.

Measuring the Performance of a Location-Aware Text Prediction System

In recent years, some works have discussed the conception of location-aware Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) systems with very positive feedback from participants. However, in most cases, complementary quantitative evaluations have not been carried out to confirm those results. To contribute to clarifying the validity of these approaches, our study quantitatively evaluated the effect of using language models with location knowledge on the efficiency of a word and sentence prediction system. Using corpora collected for three different locations (classroom, school cafeteria, home), location-specific language models were trained with sentences from each location and compared with a traditional all-purpose language model, trained on all corpora. User tests showed a modest mean improvement of 2.4% and 1.3% for Words Per Minute (WPM) and Keystroke Saving Rate (KSR), respectively, but the differences were not statistically significant. Since our text prediction system relies on the concept of sentence reuse, we ran a set of simulations with language models having different sentence knowledge levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%). We also introduced in the comparison a second location-aware strategy that combines the location-specific approach with the all-purpose approach (mixed approach). The mixed language models performed better under low sentence-reuse conditions (0%, 25%, 50%) with 1.0%, 1.3%, and 1.2% KSR improvements, respectively. The location-specific language models performed better under high sentence-reuse conditions (75%, 100%) with 1.7% and 1.5% KSR improvements, respectively.

Vocabulary Use Across Genres: Implications for Students With Complex Communication Needs

Purpose

This study examined the vocabulary words and multiword sequences used by 124 typically developing kindergarten and 1st-grade students when they wrote about self-selected topics. The study extends previous research by examining the vocabulary used in different genres.

Method

A total of 457 writing samples were analyzed. The samples were classified according to 9 genres and were analyzed using the Child Language Analysis (MacWhinney, 2006) software program.

Results

The authors found that 140 words represented 70% of the vocabulary produced. The most common genre types were narrative recounts and opinions. The patterns of frequency for words and multiword sequences varied across genres. The degree of variation was greater for particular vocabulary words. For instance, the word going was used predominantly in 1 genre. In contrast, the word mom was used in every genre except 3. The structure words tended to be used with high frequency across genres.

Conclusion

The word lists generated can be used to inform vocabulary selection, organization, and instruction for students with complex communication needs who are beginning writers.

Supplemental Material

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.6170273

Words needed for sharing a story: implications for vocabulary selection in augmentative and alternative communication

BACKGROUND

This study examined the narrative vocabulary of typically developing children for the purpose of guiding vocabulary selection for children with complex communication needs.

METHOD

Eight children in their first year of schooling (aged 5 years 0 months to 5 years 8 months) and 10 children in their second year of schooling (aged 6 years 0 months to 7 years 2 months) generated story retell, personal, and script narratives. These were analysed using the Child Language Analysis (MacWhinney, 2008 ) program.

RESULTS

Several words occurred with high frequency across all tasks. Other words were more specific to particular tasks and topics. In the story-retelling task, the majority of the unique words used were from the original story. However, of the total words available in the original story, only a small proportion was used.

CONCLUSIONS

Some of the high frequency words overlapped with those included in existing wordlists. However, other words were unique to this study. The wordlists generated will provide a useful resource that can be used alongside existing wordlists to guide decision making around vocabulary selection for children with complex communication needs.

Prediction and selection of vocabulary for two leisure activities

People who use augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) need access to a relevant, socially valid vocabulary if they are to communicate successfully in a variety of contexts. Many people with complex communication needs who utilize some form of high technology or low technology AAC rely on others to predict and select vocabulary for them. In this study the ability of one speech pathologist, nine leisure support workers, and six people with cerebral palsy to accurately predict context-specific vocabulary was explored. Participants predicted vocabulary for two leisure activities - sailing session and Internet café - using the blank page method of vocabulary selection to identify the vocabulary items they considered important for each activity. This predicted vocabulary was then compared with the actual vocabulary used in each of the activities. A total of 187 (68%) of the words predicted for the sailing session were used during recorded conversations, with 88 words (32%) not appearing in the recorded samples. During the visit to the Internet café only 104 (47%) of the words predicted occurred in the recorded samples, with 117 words (53%) not occurring at all. These results support the need to socially validate any vocabulary in order to ensure that it is relevant and useful for the person using the AAC system.

Building Language Competence With Students Using AAC Devices: Six Challenges

There is an adage used by teachers in the American education system that says, “You learn to communicate before you communicate to learn.” This saying reminds us that communication skills are the foundation for learning and that naturally developing children are generally competent communicators before they enter school. They use their foundational language skills to be successful in the classroom. This adage is not typically true for students using AAC systems. These students often enter school without competent communication skills and must work on these skills, while also trying to master school subjects. The reader is challenged to assess his or her role in the language development process of children using AAC systems. Speech-language pathologists will be encouraged to go beyond the role of programming AAC devices and return to the role of “language therapist.” Educators, who spend the majority of the school day with the student, are reminded that they hold the keys to augmentative communication success in schools. Their role is critical in supporting and applying language skills in the classroom.

Vocabulary to support socially-valued adult roles

Individuals who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) have new expectations for life after high school. However, the vocabulary needed to support socially-valued adult roles may not be available in their communication devices. This study explored whether vocabulary needed to participate in six adult roles currently existed in three widely used symbol sets. Electronic mailing lists were used to generate words needed for each adult role. From these vocabulary sets, discrepancy analyses were conducted to determine whether symbols or symbol combinations in each of the symbol sets studied could represent those words. Results suggest that, overall, an average of 55% of the identified words was currently available in these symbol sets. The need for easily accessible vocabulary that reflects socially-valued adult roles is discussed.

Vocabulary selection for Australian children who use augmentative and alternative communication

BACKGROUND

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)1 systems are commonly used to support children with complex communication needs in Australian preschools. However, such systems will only be effective if they contain words and messages that adequately meet these children's communication needs. The aim of this study was to identify the words most frequently and commonly used by typically developing Australian preschool-aged children, in order to inform the selection of vocabulary for their classmates who use AAC.

METHOD

Communication samples were collected from 6 typically developing children during regular preschool activities. The samples were analysed to determine the number of different words used by the children, the frequency with which each word was used, and the commonality of use across children.

RESULTS

The children used a small core vocabulary comprising frequently and commonly used words, together with large and highly individualised fringe vocabularies.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are consistent with the findings of previous studies, and highlight the importance of providing both core and fringe vocabulary to preschool-aged children who use AAC.

Sociocultural development and validation of lexicon for Asian-Indian individuals who use augmentative and alternative communication

PURPOSE

Individuals who temporarily or permanently are not able to communicate through use of gestures/signs, speech, and/or written communication mode benefit from the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems. Effective communication skills for individuals who use an AAC system depend on appropriate lexicon. This study was designed to develop and validate a socially and culturally appropriate lexicon for Asian-Indians who use AAC.

METHOD

To this end, 120 individuals from India participated in this study. A composite list of lexical items was identified, using a structured social validation technique involving non-categorical and categorical nominations, and a rating of lexical items from a Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) lexicon.

RESULTS

Data analysis indicated that 88 lexical items from the nomination task were not represented in the PCS lexicon and 247 items were rated as having no value for the Asian-Indian culture.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that while a lexicon from symbol sets developed for one culture might have considerable overlap across cultures, these lexicons may not be appropriate as a source of selecting a lexicon for an AAC user from a culturally and linguistically diverse background. Implications of these findings are discussed for speech-language pathologists and other rehabilitation professionals.