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Ragan IK, Hartson LM, Sullivan EJ, Bowen RA, Goodrich RP. Pathogen reduction of monkeypox virus in plasma and whole blood using riboflavin and UV light. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0278862. [PMID: 36662705 PMCID: PMC9857991 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monkeypox virus has recently emerged from endemic foci in Africa and, since October 20, 2022, more than 73,000 human infections have been reported by the CDC from over 100 countries that historically have not reported monkeypox cases. The detection of virus in skin lesions, blood, semen, and saliva of infected patients with monkeypox infections raises the potential for disease transmission via routes that have not been previously documented, including by blood and plasma transfusions. Methods for protecting the blood supply against the threats of newly emerging disease agents exist and include Pathogen Reduction Technologies (PRT) which utilize photochemical treatment processes to inactivate pathogens in blood while preserving the integrity of plasma and cellular components. Such methods have been employed broadly for over 15 years, but effectiveness of these methods under routine use conditions against monkeypox virus has not been reported. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Monkeypox virus (strain USA_2003) was used to inoculate plasma and whole blood units that were then treated with riboflavin and UV light (Mirasol Pathogen Reduction Technology System, Terumo BCT, Lakewood, CO). The infectious titers of monkeypox virus in the samples before and after riboflavin + UV treatment were determined by plaque assay on Vero cells. RESULTS The levels of spiked virus present in whole blood and plasma samples exceeded 103 infectious particles per dose, corresponding to greater than 105 DNA copies per mL. Treatment of whole blood and plasma units under standard operating procedures for the Mirasol PRT System resulted in complete inactivation of infectivity to the limits of detection. This is equivalent to a reduction of ≥ 2.86 +/- 0.73 log10 pfu/mL of infectivity in whole blood and ≥ 3.47 +/-0.19 log10 pfu/mL of infectivity in plasma under standard operating conditions for those products. CONCLUSION Based on this data and corresponding studies on infectivity in patients with monkeypox infections, use of Mirasol PRT would be expected to significantly reduce the risk of transfusion transmission of monkeypox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izabela K. Ragan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lindsay M. Hartson
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth J. Sullivan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Richard A. Bowen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Raymond P. Goodrich
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Fujiwara M, Auty H, Brown I, Boden L. Assessing the Likelihood of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Incursion Into the Gamebird Sector in Great Britain via Designated Hatcheries. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:877197. [PMID: 35529831 PMCID: PMC9072826 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.877197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The outbreaks of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) in the United Kingdom in 2017 and 2021 had a substantial impact on the gamebird industry and highlighted to policymakers the importance of existing knowledge gaps for effective disease control. Despite the size of the industry, the impact of HPAI on the gamebird industry is not well-understood. To improve future disease preparedness, a veterinary risk assessment to explore the risk of HPAI incursion into the gamebird sector in Great Britain via a designated hatchery was commissioned by Scottish Government Animal Health and Welfare Division. Hatchery designation is a legal requirement for hatcheries located within disease control zones or that have business links to premises located in disease control zones to continue operating during an HPAI outbreak. Several risk pathways were identified, which involved various management procedures associated with egg production through to the delivery of day-old chicks. The overall likelihood of the HPAI virus introduction into a designated hatchery through hatching egg movement is considered to be low (high uncertainty). The overall likelihood of onward transmission of the HPAI virus into gamebird rearing sites from a designated hatchery through day-old chick movement is also considered to be low (medium uncertainty). These risk levels are based on the assumption that relevant control measures are observed, as enhanced biosecurity is one of the requirements for hatchery designation. However, high uncertainties and variabilities were identified in the level of compliance with these biosecurity measures. Factors increasing the likelihood level include management practices typical to this sector, such as having multiple egg production sites, raising birds at outdoor sites, catching birds from the wild for egg production, having various scale of satellite farms in various locations, importing eggs and day-old chicks from overseas, as well as the proximity of the game farm to the infected premise or to higher risk areas. This study offers evidence for policymakers to help develop criteria for hatchery designation and proposes important mitigation strategies for future disease outbreaks specific for the gamebird sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Fujiwara
- Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Harriet Auty
- Institute of Biodiversity, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Brown
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, United Kingdom.,School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.,Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa Boden
- Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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St. Charles KM, Ssematimba A, Malladi S, Bonney PJ, Linskens E, Culhane M, Goldsmith TJ, Halvorson DA, Cardona CJ. Avian Influenza in the U.S. Commercial Upland Game Bird Industry: An Analysis of Selected Practices as Potential Exposure Pathways and Surveillance System Data Reporting. Avian Dis 2018; 62:307-315. [DOI: 10.1637/11814-021518-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn M. St. Charles
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Amos Ssematimba
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Sasidhar Malladi
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Peter J. Bonney
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Eric Linskens
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Marie Culhane
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary Population Medicine, 1365 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Timothy J. Goldsmith
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary Population Medicine, 1365 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - David A. Halvorson
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Carol J. Cardona
- Secure Food Systems Team, University of Minnesota, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 301C Veterinary Science Building, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
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Root JJ, Shriner SA, Bentler KT, Gidlewski T, Mooers NL, Spraker TR, VanDalen KK, Sullivan HJ, Franklin AB. Shedding of a low pathogenic avian influenza virus in a common synanthropic mammal--the cottontail rabbit. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102513. [PMID: 25111780 PMCID: PMC4128595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.) are common mammals throughout much of the U.S. and are often found in peridomestic settings, potentially interacting with livestock and poultry operations. If these animals are susceptible to avian influenza virus (AIV) infections and shed the virus in sufficient quantities they may pose a risk for movement of avian influenza viruses between wildlife and domestic animals in certain situations. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS To assess the viral shedding potential of AIV in cottontails, we nasally inoculated fourteen cottontails with a low pathogenic AIV (H4N6). All inoculated cottontails shed relatively large quantities of viral RNA both nasally (≤ 10(6.94) PCR EID50 equivalents/mL) and orally (≤ 10(5.09) PCR EID50 equivalents/mL). However, oral shedding tended to decline more quickly than did nasal shedding. No animals showed any obvious signs of disease throughout the study. Evidence of a serological response was found in all infected rabbits at 22 days post infection in convalescent sera. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE To our knowledge, cottontails have not been previously assessed for AIV shedding. However, it was obvious that they shed AIV RNA extensively via the nasal and oral routes. This is significant, as cottontails are widely distributed throughout the U.S. and elsewhere. These mammals are often found in highly peridomestic situations, such as farms, parks, and suburban neighborhoods, often becoming habituated to human activities. Thus, if infected these mammals could easily transport AIVs short distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Jeffrey Root
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Susan A. Shriner
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kevin T. Bentler
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Thomas Gidlewski
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Nicole L. Mooers
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Terry R. Spraker
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kaci K. VanDalen
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Heather J. Sullivan
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Alan B. Franklin
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Van Kerkhove MD. Brief literature review for the WHO global influenza research agenda--highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 risk in humans. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014; 7 Suppl 2:26-33. [PMID: 24034480 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 viruses remain a significant health threat to humans given the continued rare occurrence of human cases with a high case fatality rate. This brief literature review summarizes available evidence of risk factors for H5N1 infection in humans and updates a recent systematic review published in early 2011. Several epidemiologic studies have been published to evaluate the risk factors for H5N1 infection in humans, including contact with poultry and poultry products and non-poultry-related contact such as from H5N1-contaminated water. While most H5N1 cases are attributed to exposure to sick poultry, it is unclear how many may be due to human-to-human transmission. The collective results of published literature suggest that transmission risk of H5N1 from poultry to humans may be highest among individuals who may have been in contact with the highest potential concentrations of virus shed by poultry. This suggests that there may be a threshold of virus concentration needed for effective transmission and that circulating H5N1 strains have not yet mutated to transmit readily from either poultry to human or from human to human. However, the mode of potential transmission can be quite varied throughout different countries and by study with exposures ranging from visiting a wet market, preparing infected poultry for consumption, to swimming or bathing in ponds frequented by poultry. Several important data gaps remain in the understanding of the epidemiology of H5N1 in humans and limit our ability to interpret the results of the available H5N1 seroepidemiologic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria D Van Kerkhove
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Bertran K, Dolz R, Majó N. Pathobiology of avian influenza virus infection in minor gallinaceous species: a review. Avian Pathol 2014; 43:9-25. [PMID: 24467281 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2013.876529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Susceptibility to avian influenza viruses (AIVs) can vary greatly among bird species. Chickens and turkeys are major avian species that, like ducks, have been extensively studied for avian influenza. To a lesser extent, minor avian species such as quail, partridges, and pheasants have also been investigated for avian influenza. Usually, such game fowl species are highly susceptible to highly pathogenic AIVs and may consistently spread both highly pathogenic AIVs and low-pathogenic AIVs. These findings, together with the fact that game birds are considered bridge species in the poultry-wildlife interface, highlight their interest from the transmission and biosecurity points of view. Here, the general pathobiological features of low-pathogenic AIV and highly pathogenic AIV infections in this group of avian species have been covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- a Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), UAB-IRTA , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Spain
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Pepin KM, Spackman E, Brown JD, Pabilonia KL, Garber LP, Weaver JT, Kennedy DA, Patyk KA, Huyvaert KP, Miller RS, Franklin AB, Pedersen K, Bogich TL, Rohani P, Shriner SA, Webb CT, Riley S. Using quantitative disease dynamics as a tool for guiding response to avian influenza in poultry in the United States of America. Prev Vet Med 2013; 113:376-97. [PMID: 24462191 PMCID: PMC3945821 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Wild birds are the primary source of genetic diversity for influenza A viruses that eventually emerge in poultry and humans. Much progress has been made in the descriptive ecology of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), but contributions are less evident from quantitative studies (e.g., those including disease dynamic models). Transmission between host species, individuals and flocks has not been measured with sufficient accuracy to allow robust quantitative evaluation of alternate control protocols. We focused on the United States of America (USA) as a case study for determining the state of our quantitative knowledge of potential AIV emergence processes from wild hosts to poultry. We identified priorities for quantitative research that would build on existing tools for responding to AIV in poultry and concluded that the following knowledge gaps can be addressed with current empirical data: (1) quantification of the spatio-temporal relationships between AIV prevalence in wild hosts and poultry populations, (2) understanding how the structure of different poultry sectors impacts within-flock transmission, (3) determining mechanisms and rates of between-farm spread, and (4) validating current policy-decision tools with data. The modeling studies we recommend will improve our mechanistic understanding of potential AIV transmission patterns in USA poultry, leading to improved measures of accuracy and reduced uncertainty when evaluating alternative control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Pepin
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - E Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - J D Brown
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - K L Pabilonia
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - L P Garber
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - J T Weaver
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - D A Kennedy
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA.
| | - K A Patyk
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - K P Huyvaert
- Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - R S Miller
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - A B Franklin
- National Wildlife Research Center, Wildlife Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - K Pedersen
- National Wildlife Research Center, Wildlife Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - T L Bogich
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - P Rohani
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Center for the Study of Complex Systems, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - S A Shriner
- National Wildlife Research Center, Wildlife Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - C T Webb
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - S Riley
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Disease Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London, UK.
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Bertran K, Dolz R, Busquets N, Gamino V, Vergara-Alert J, Chaves AJ, Ramis A, Abad FX, Höfle U, Majó N. Pathobiology and transmission of highly and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses in European quail (Coturnix c. coturnix). Vet Res 2013; 44:23. [PMID: 23537387 PMCID: PMC3640924 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
European quail (Coturnix c. coturnix) may share with Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica) its potential as an intermediate host and reservoir of avian influenza viruses (AIV). To elucidate this question, European quail were experimentally challenged with two highly pathogenic AIV (HPAIV) (H7N1/HP and H5N1/HP) and one low pathogenic AIV (LPAIV) (H7N2/LP). Contact animals were also used to assess the viral transmission among birds. Severe neurological signs and mortality rates of 67% (H7N1/HP) and 92% (H5N1/HP) were observed. Although histopathological findings were present in both HPAIV-infected groups, H5N1/HP-quail displayed a broader viral antigen distribution and extent of microscopic lesions. Neither clinical nor pathological involvement was observed in LPAIV-infected quail. Consistent long-term viral shedding and effective transmission to naive quail was demonstrated for the three studied AIV. Drinking water arose as a possible transmission route and feathers as a potential origin of HPAIV dissemination. The present study demonstrates that European quail may play a major role in AI epidemiology, highlighting the need to further understand its putative role as an intermediate host for avian/mammalian reassortant viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), UAB-IRTA, Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193, Spain.
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Vittecoq M, Grandhomme V, Champagnon J, Guillemain M, Crescenzo-Chaigne B, Renaud F, Thomas F, Gauthier-Clerc M, van der Werf S. High influenza a virus infection rates in Mallards bred for hunting in the Camargue, South of France. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43974. [PMID: 22952832 PMCID: PMC3428329 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last decade, the role of wildlife in emerging pathogen transmission to domestic animals has often been pointed out. Conversely, far less attention has been paid to pathogen transmission from domestic animals to wildlife. Here, we focus on the case of game restocking, which implies the release of millions of animals worldwide each year. We conducted a 2-year study in the Camargue (Southern France) to investigate the influence of hand-reared Mallard releases on avian influenza virus dynamics in surrounding wildlife. We sampled Mallards (cloacal swabs) from several game duck facilities in 2009 and 2010 before their release. A very high (99%) infection rate caused by an H10N7 strain was detected in the game bird facility we sampled in 2009. We did not detect this strain in shot ducks we sampled, neither during the 2008/2009 nor the 2009/2010 hunting seasons. In 2010 infection rates ranged from 0 to 24% in hand-reared ducks. The 2009 H10N7 strain was fully sequenced. It results from multiple reassortment events between Eurasian low pathogenic strains. Interestingly, H10N7 strains had previously caused human infections in Egypt and Australia. The H10 and N7 segments we sequenced were clearly distinct from the Australian ones but they belonged to the same large cluster as the Egyptian ones. We did not observe any mutation linked to increased virulence, transmission to mammals, or antiviral resistance in the H10N7 strain we identified. Our results indicate that the potential role of hand-reared Mallards in influenza virus epizootics must be taken into account given the likely risk of viral exchange between game bird facilities and wild habitats, owing to duck rearing conditions. Measures implemented to limit transmission from wildlife to domestic animals as well as measures to control transmission from domestic animals to wild ones need to be equally reinforced.
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