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Ramos-Leví AM, Collado G, Marazuela M. Seasonality of month of birth in patients with autoimmune endocrine diseases: A systematic review. ENDOCRINOL DIAB NUTR 2022; 69:779-790. [PMID: 36526353 DOI: 10.1016/j.endien.2022.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to seasonal environmental factors during gestation or early in the postnatal period could influence the development of autoimmunity, determining a seasonality in the month of birth (MOB). There are studies evaluating this potential seasonality in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD), and Addison's disease (ADD), but results have been controversial. METHODS Systematic review according to PRISMA guidelines, using PubMed, Web of Science and WorldCat databases (2005-2020) of studies that explored the association between the seasonality of the MOB and T1D, AITD and ADD. Information on sex and age, location, methodology and internal quality, seasonal patterns, hypotheses and other factors proposed to explain seasonality were extracted. Differences in season and month of birth were further discussed. RESULTS The initial search retrieved 300 articles, and after further screening, 11 articles fulfilled inclusion criteria and were finally selected and reviewed. 73% found a seasonal pattern and 64% showed birth peaks in spring and/or summer. Hashimoto's thyroiditis and women exhibited a higher seasonality. Ultraviolet radiation, Vitamin D levels and viral infections were identified as influencing factors. CONCLUSIONS The effect of certain seasonal factors during foetal development, reflected by the seasonal differences in the MOB, could contribute to the development of endocrine autoimmune diseases in predisposed patients. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the observed seasonality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Ramos-Leví
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigación Princesa, Universidad Autónoma, C/ Diego de León 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Gloria Collado
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigación Princesa, Universidad Autónoma, C/ Diego de León 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Monica Marazuela
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigación Princesa, Universidad Autónoma, C/ Diego de León 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Seasonality of month of birth in patients with autoimmune endocrine diseases: A systematic review. ENDOCRINOL DIAB NUTR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.endinu.2021.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Vieira IH, Rodrigues D, Paiva I. Vitamin D and Autoimmune Thyroid Disease-Cause, Consequence, or a Vicious Cycle? Nutrients 2020; 12:E2791. [PMID: 32933065 PMCID: PMC7551884 DOI: 10.3390/nu12092791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin D is a steroid hormone traditionally connected to phosphocalcium metabolism. The discovery of pleiotropic expression of its receptor and of the enzymes involved in its metabolism has led to the exploration of the other roles of this vitamin. The influence of vitamin D on autoimmune disease-namely, on autoimmune thyroid disease-has been widely studied. Most of the existing data support a relationship between vitamin D deficiency and a greater tendency for development and/or higher titers of antibodies linked to Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, and/or postpartum thyroiditis. However, there have also been some reports contradicting such relationships, thus making it difficult to establish a unanimous conclusion. Even if the existence of an association between vitamin D and autoimmune thyroid disease is assumed, it is still unclear whether it reflects a pathological mechanism, a causal relationship, or a consequence of the autoimmune process. The relationship between vitamin D's polymorphisms and this group of diseases has also been the subject of study, often with divergent results. This text presents a review of the recent literature on the relationship between vitamin D and autoimmune thyroid disease, providing an analysis of the likely involved mechanisms. Our thesis is that, due to its immunoregulatory role, vitamin D plays a minor role in conjunction with myriad other factors. In some cases, a vicious cycle is generated, thus contributing to the deficiency and aggravating the autoimmune process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Henriques Vieira
- Endocrinology Department of Coimbra Hospital and University Centre, Praceta Professor Mota Pinto, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.); (I.P.)
| | - Dírcea Rodrigues
- Endocrinology Department of Coimbra Hospital and University Centre, Praceta Professor Mota Pinto, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.); (I.P.)
- Faculty of Medicine of the University of Coimbra, R. Larga 2, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isabel Paiva
- Endocrinology Department of Coimbra Hospital and University Centre, Praceta Professor Mota Pinto, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.); (I.P.)
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Kyrgios I, Giza S, Tsinopoulou VR, Maggana I, Haidich AB, Galli-Tsinopoulou A. Seasonality of month of birth in children and adolescents with autoimmune thyroiditis: a continuing conundrum. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2018; 31:1123-1131. [PMID: 30226206 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2018-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Background The aim of this study was to analyze the seasonal birth month pattern in young patients with autoimmune thyroiditis and compare it with youth controls. Methods Medical records of a total of 298 children and adolescents of Greek origin, with a diagnosis of Hashimoto thyroiditis (HT) before the age of 21 years that were born from 1987 to 2010 were retrospectively reviewed. In addition, 298 consecutive subjects that were born from 1988 to 2012 and evaluated in a tertiary unit for any reason, served as controls, provided that they had no personal or family history of thyroid or any other autoimmune disease. Results Significant differences were found between children and adolescents with HT and healthy controls in the yearly pattern of month of birth distribution (p=0.029). During month-by-month analysis, it was shown that the highest and lowest predispositions to HT were among those born in spring (March) (odds ratio [OR] 2.34, p=0.005), and autumn (November) (OR 0.49, p=0.035), respectively. A binary logistic regression model also revealed that season of birth and sex were the only factors that remained related to HT disease, even after adjustment for confounding factors such as year of birth and age (p<0.001, Nagelkerke r-square 0.151). Conclusions This study suggests that the effect of certain seasonal factors during fetal development, reflected by the seasonal differences in birth pattern, in children and adolescents with autoimmune thyroiditis could contribute to long-term programming of an autoimmune response against the thyroid gland. Further studies are needed to demonstrate a clear cause and effect relationship between month of birth and HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Kyrgios
- 4th Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Styliani Giza
- 4th Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Rengina Tsinopoulou
- 4th Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioanna Maggana
- 4th Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anna-Bettina Haidich
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Assimina Galli-Tsinopoulou
- 4th Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou General Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Sivalingam S, Thvilum M, Brix TH, Hegedüs L, Brandt F. No link between season of birth and subsequent development of Graves' disease or toxic nodular goitre: a nationwide Danish register-based study. Endocr Connect 2018; 7:EC-18-0185. [PMID: 30139815 PMCID: PMC6198190 DOI: 10.1530/ec-18-0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Season of birth, an exogenous indicator of early life environment, has been linked with a higher risk of adverse health outcomes such as autoimmune thyroiditis, multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia later in life. Whether the development and cause of hyperthyroidism is influenced by season of birth is unclarified. We aimed, at a nationwide level, to investigate whether season of birth influences the risk of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease (GD) and/or toxic nodular goitre (TNG). METHOD Register-based nationwide cohort study. By record-linkage between Danish health registers, 36,087 and 20,537 patients with GD and TNG, respectively, were identified. Each case was matched with four controls without thyroid disease, according to age and sex. Differences in month-of-birth across the year were evaluated by the Walter-Elwood test. Hazard ratios, for the risk of GD and TNG in individuals born in a certain month or season of the year, were calculated using Cox regression models. RESULTS Neither for GD nor for TNG could we demonstrate a significant difference in birth rate across months or seasons of the year (Walter-Elwood's test; X2 = 5.92 and X2 = 1.27, p = 0.052 and p=0.53, respectively). CONCLUSION Irrespective of its cause, our findings do not support the hypothesis that season of birth is significantly related to the development of hyperthyroidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvanjaa Sivalingam
- S Sivalingam, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital of Southern Jutland, Sønderborg, Denmark
| | - Marianne Thvilum
- M Thvilum, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense, 5000, Denmark
| | - Thomas Heiberg Brix
- T Brix, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, 5000, Denmark
| | - Laszlo Hegedüs
- L Hegedüs, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Frans Brandt
- F Brandt, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital of Southern Jutland, Sønderborg, Denmark
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Thvilum M, Brandt F, Brix TH, Hegedüs L. Month of birth is associated with the subsequent diagnosis of autoimmune hypothyroidism. A nationwide Danish register-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2017; 87:832-837. [PMID: 28727153 DOI: 10.1111/cen.13425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The triggering of thyroid autoimmunity in the genetically susceptible remains a conundrum. Environmental exposures during gestation and/or early postnatally have proponents, as suggested in diabetes mellitus, with a higher incidence of births during spring and summer. Whether the development of autoimmune hypothyroidism (AIT) is influenced by month or season of birth is less clear. METHOD Nationwide cohort study of 111 565 individuals diagnosed with AIT and four euthyroid controls per case, matched according to age and sex, were identified from Danish health registers. Differences in month of birth across the year were evaluated by the Walter-Elwood test. The risk of patients with AIT being born in a certain month or season of the year was calculated using a Cox regression model. RESULTS There was a significant difference in birth month between cases and controls, P<.001. Individuals with AIT had a significantly increased risk of being born in June (Hazard ratio 1.04; 95% Confidence interval (CI): 1.02-1.08) and in the summer (June-August; HR 1.02; 95%CI: 1.01-1.04). CONCLUSION In this large-scale nationwide cohort study, we found a higher risk of AIT when born in the summer season or more specifically in June, supporting the hypothesis that seasonal variations in exposures-gestationally and/or early postnatally-may contribute to the development of AIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Thvilum
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Frans Brandt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital of Southern Denmark, Sonderborg, Denmark
| | - Thomas Heiberg Brix
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Laszlo Hegedüs
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
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Jonsdottir B, Lundgren M, Wallengren S, Lernmark Å, Jönsson I, Elding Larsson H. Are Perinatal Events Risk Factors for Childhood Thyroid Autoimmunity? Eur Thyroid J 2017; 6:298-306. [PMID: 29234623 PMCID: PMC5704722 DOI: 10.1159/000479964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental and genetic factors possibly trigger thyroid autoimmunity. Studies on perinatal risk factors for childhood thyroid autoimmunity are sparse. OBJECTIVES The aim was to investigate if perinatal factors, family history of autoimmune diseases, and HLA-DQ genotypes contribute to thyroid autoimmunity in the Diabetes Prediction in Skåne (DiPiS) study. METHODS Samples from 1,874 ten-year-old children were analyzed for autoantibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPOAb), thyroglobulin (TGAb), and HLA-DQ genotypes. Information on perinatal events and family history of autoimmunity was gathered prospectively in questionnaires. RESULTS Thyroid autoimmunity was found in 6.9% of the children (TPOAb 4.4%, TGAb 5.8%, both autoantibodies 3.3%) and was overrepresented in girls. Prematurity was positively related to TGAb (OR: 2.4, p = 0.003, pc = 0.021). Autoimmune diseases in the family increased the risk of thyroid autoimmunity: TPOAb (OR: 2.2, p = 0.012), any autoantibody (OR: 1.7, p = 0.04), and both autoantibodies (OR: 2.2, p = 0.024). A first-degree relative (FDR) with thyroid disease increased the risk for TPOAb (OR: 2.4, p = 0.03) and both autoantibodies (OR: 2.6, p = 0.03), a FDR or sibling with celiac disease increased the risk for both autoantibodies (OR: 3.7, p = 0.03, and OR: 4.8, p = 0.003), a FDR or sibling with diabetes increased the risk for thyroid autoantibody (OR: 3.0, p = 0.01, and OR: 5.4, p = 0.032), and a father with rheumatic disease increased the risk for TPOAb (OR: 15.2, p = 0.017), TGAb (OR: 11.3, p = 0.029), any autoantibody (OR: 9.6, p = 0.038), and both autoantibodies (OR: 20, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Thyroid autoimmunity was found in 6.9% of the 10-year-old children who were being followed for their risk of type 1 diabetes. No relation to perinatal factors was found, with the exception of a possible association between prematurity and TGAb. Family history of autoimmune diseases increased the risk of thyroid autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berglind Jonsdottir
- *Berglind Jonsdottir, Clinical Research Center, Box 50332, SE-202 13 Malmö (Sweden), E-Mail
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Pazderska A, Fichna M, Mitchell AL, Napier CM, Gan E, Ruchała M, Santibanez-Koref M, Pearce SH. Impact of Month of Birth on the Risk of Development of Autoimmune Addison's Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101:4214-4218. [PMID: 27575942 PMCID: PMC5095257 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2016-2392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The pathogenesis of autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) is thought to be due to interplay of genetic, immune, and environmental factors. A month-of-birth effect, with increased risk for those born in autumn/winter months, has been described in autoimmune conditions such as type 1 diabetes and autoimmune thyroid disease. OBJECTIVE Month-of-birth effect was investigated in 2 independent cohorts of AAD subjects. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS The monthly distribution of birth in AAD patients was compared with that of the general population using the cosinor test. A total of 415 AAD subjects from the United Kingdom cohort were compared with 8 180 180 United Kingdom births, and 231 AAD subjects from the Polish cohort were compared with 2 421 384 Polish births. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Association between month of birth and the susceptibility to AAD. RESULTS In the entire cohort of AAD subjects, month-of-birth distribution analysis showed significant periodicity with peak of births in December and trough in May (P = .028). Analysis of the odds ratio distribution based on month of birth in 2 cohorts of patients with AAD versus the general population revealed a December peak and May trough, and January peak and July trough, in the United Kingdom and Polish cohorts, respectively. CONCLUSION For the first time, we demonstrate that month of birth exerts an effect on the risk of developing AAD, with excess risk in individuals born in winter months and a protective effect when born in the summer. Exposure to seasonal viral infections in the perinatal period, coupled with vitamin D deficiency, could lead to dysregulation of innate immunity affecting the risk of developing AAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Pazderska
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marta Fichna
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Anna L Mitchell
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Catherine M Napier
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Earn Gan
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marek Ruchała
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Mauro Santibanez-Koref
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
| | - Simon H Pearce
- Institute of Genetic Medicine (A.P., A.L.M., C.M.N., E.G., M..S-K., S.H.P.), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ United Kingdom; Institute of Human Genetics (M.F.), Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479, Poznan, Poland; and Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine (M.F., M.R.), Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznan, Poland
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Capriati T, Francavilla R, Castellaneta S, Ferretti F, Diamanti A. Impact of the birth's season on the development of celiac disease in Italy. Eur J Pediatr 2015; 174:1657-63. [PMID: 26141172 DOI: 10.1007/s00431-015-2589-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated systemic disorder induced by a trigger factor in genetically susceptible individuals. There is emerging evidence about the impact of the month of birth on the development of several autoimmune diseases. Our aim was to investigate whether, in Italian CD children, the season of birth is associated with development of CD later in life. We report a survey conducted at two Italian referral centers for CD in Rome and Bari. The CD database was created to enable retrospective examination of the data of all the consecutive patients, born between 2003 and 2010, who had received a diagnosis of CD. This CD patient group comprising 596 children was compared with a reference group that included all subjects born in the same period and in the same cities (439,990 controls). Overall, there was a summer birth preponderance in CD patients compared to controls (28.2 % of CD patients vs 23.0 % of the control population; OR 1.315; 95 % CI 1.100 to 1.572). Stratifying the caseload by gender and age, the summer birth preponderance was maintained for females (28.6 % CD females vs 22.6 % control females; OR 1.368; 95 % CI 1.069 to 1.750). CONCLUSIONS our survey confirms that in Italy, children born in summer are at higher risk to develop CD than subjects born in other seasons. The identification of a responsible seasonal factor or factors, such as timing of the first introduction of gluten and/or acute viral gastrointestinal infections, would be very important for disease prevention strategies. WHAT IS KNOWN • Environmental factors could be involved in the pathogenesis of CD. • Data about the impact of season of birth on CD development is so far derived from North American, Northern European and Israeli surveys. WHAT IS NEW • This is the first study in Southern Europe to find a relationship between season of birth (summer) and development of CD. • Summer-born infants are introduced to complementary feeding (gluten) in winter, when the rotavirus infection is at its highest peak; this may be the link between season of birth and development of CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Capriati
- Gastroenterology-Hepatology and Nutrition Unit, "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, Rome, 00165, Italy.
| | - Ruggiero Francavilla
- Gastroenterology Unit, Pediatric Clinic of University, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, Bari, 70124, Italy.
| | - Stefania Castellaneta
- Department of Pediatrics, San Paolo Hospital, Via di Caposcardicchio 10, Bari, 70100, Italy.
| | - Francesca Ferretti
- Hepato-Metabolic Diseases Unit, "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, Rome, 00165, Italy.
| | - Antonella Diamanti
- Gastroenterology-Hepatology and Nutrition Unit, "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, Rome, 00165, Italy.
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Abstract
Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is part of a spectrum of thyroid autoimmune conditions and this review provides an update on the latest developments in the field. HT has a genetic predisposition with a number of immune-related and thyroid-specific genes conferring disease susceptibility. However, disentangling genes with protective and predisposing effect is a complex process that requires further work. The recent increase in the incidence of HT implicates environmental factors in disease pathogenesis including improved hygiene, increased dietary iodine intake, new treatment modalities and chemical agents. Additional unmodifiable predisposing factors include stress, climate, age and gender. Both cellular and humoral immunity play a role in HT pathogenesis. Defects in T regulatory cells and increased activation of follicular helper T cells may have a role in disease initiation/perpetuation. Infiltrating lymphocytes can be directly cytotoxic to thyroid follicular cells (TFC) or may affect cell viability/function indirectly through cytokine production, which alters TFC integrity and modulates their metabolic and immune function. Thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies are present in the majority of HT patients and help with management decisions. Antibodies against the sodium iodide symporter and pendrin are present in a minority with little known about their clinical relevance. In addition to immune cells, recent work has identified DNA fragments, generated following cell death, and micro RNA as potential factors in HT pathogenesis. Despite the large number of studies, the mechanistic pathways in HT are still not fully understood and further work is required to enhance our knowledge and identify novel preventative and therapeutic clinical targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Ajjan
- Division of Cardiovascular and Diabetes Research, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - A P Weetman
- Department of Human Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Marinò M, Latrofa F, Menconi F, Chiovato L, Vitti P. Role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of Graves' disease. J Endocrinol Invest 2015; 38:283-94. [PMID: 25421156 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-014-0214-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In spite of the advancements in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of Graves' disease (GD), its ultimate cause remains elusive. The majority of investigators agree that GD is likely a multifactorial disease, due to a complex interplay of genetic and non-genetic factors that lead to the loss of immune tolerance to thyroid antigens and to the initiation of a sustained autoimmune reaction. Twin and family studies support a role of genetic factors, among which the HLA complex, CD40, CTLA-4, PTPN22, FCRL3, thyroglobulin, and the TSH receptor may be involved. Among non-genetic factors, iodine, infections, psychological stress, gender, smoking, thyroid damage, vitamin D, selenium, immune modulating agents, and periods of immune reconstitution may contribute the development of the diseases. Here we review in detail the respective role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of GD, taking advantage of the great bulk of data generated especially over the past 30 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marinò
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy.
| | - F Latrofa
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - F Menconi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - L Chiovato
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, University of Pavia, Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - P Vitti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
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