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López M, Nogueiras R. Ghrelin. Curr Biol 2023; 33:R1133-R1135. [PMID: 37935121 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
López and Nogueiras introduce the peptide ghrelin and its physiological functions, including its roles in stimulating appetite and growth hormone release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel López
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain.
| | - Ruben Nogueiras
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain; Galician Agency of Innovation (GAIN), Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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2
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Raise-Abdullahi P, Meamar M, Vafaei AA, Alizadeh M, Dadkhah M, Shafia S, Ghalandari-Shamami M, Naderian R, Afshin Samaei S, Rashidy-Pour A. Hypothalamus and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Review. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1010. [PMID: 37508942 PMCID: PMC10377115 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13071010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans have lived in a dynamic environment fraught with potential dangers for thousands of years. While fear and stress were crucial for the survival of our ancestors, today, they are mostly considered harmful factors, threatening both our physical and mental health. Trauma is a highly stressful, often life-threatening event or a series of events, such as sexual assault, war, natural disasters, burns, and car accidents. Trauma can cause pathological metaplasticity, leading to long-lasting behavioral changes and impairing an individual's ability to cope with future challenges. If an individual is vulnerable, a tremendously traumatic event may result in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The hypothalamus is critical in initiating hormonal responses to stressful stimuli via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Linked to the prefrontal cortex and limbic structures, especially the amygdala and hippocampus, the hypothalamus acts as a central hub, integrating physiological aspects of the stress response. Consequently, the hypothalamic functions have been attributed to the pathophysiology of PTSD. However, apart from the well-known role of the HPA axis, the hypothalamus may also play different roles in the development of PTSD through other pathways, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes, as well as by secreting growth hormone, prolactin, dopamine, and oxytocin. This review aims to summarize the current evidence regarding the neuroendocrine functions of the hypothalamus, which are correlated with the development of PTSD. A better understanding of the role of the hypothalamus in PTSD could help develop better treatments for this debilitating condition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Morvarid Meamar
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Maryam Alizadeh
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Qom Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Qom, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Dadkhah
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Sakineh Shafia
- Immunogenetics Research Center, Department of Physiology, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | | | - Ramtin Naderian
- Student Research Committee, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Seyed Afshin Samaei
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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Lund LH, Hage C, Pironti G, Thorvaldsen T, Ljung-Faxén U, Zabarovskaja S, Shahgaldi K, Webb DL, Hellström PM, Andersson DC, Ståhlberg M. Acyl ghrelin improves cardiac function in heart failure and increases fractional shortening in cardiomyocytes without calcium mobilization. Eur Heart J 2023; 44:2009-2025. [PMID: 36916707 PMCID: PMC10256198 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehad100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Ghrelin is an endogenous appetite-stimulating peptide hormone with potential cardiovascular benefits. Effects of acylated (activated) ghrelin were assessed in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and in ex vivo mouse cardiomyocytes. METHODS AND RESULTS In a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind trial, 31 patients with chronic HFrEF were randomized to synthetic human acyl ghrelin (0.1 µg/kg/min) or placebo intravenously over 120 min. The primary outcome was change in cardiac output (CO). Isolated mouse cardiomyocytes were treated with acyl ghrelin and fractional shortening and calcium transients were assessed. Acyl ghrelin but not placebo increased cardiac output (acyl ghrelin: 4.08 ± 1.15 to 5.23 ± 1.98 L/min; placebo: 4.26 ± 1.23 to 4.11 ± 1.99 L/min, P < 0.001). Acyl ghrelin caused a significant increase in stroke volume and nominal increases in left ventricular ejection fraction and segmental longitudinal strain and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion. There were no effects on blood pressure, arrhythmias, or ischaemia. Heart rate decreased nominally (acyl ghrelin: 71 ± 11 to 67 ± 11 b.p.m.; placebo 69 ± 8 to 68 ± 10 b.p.m.). In cardiomyocytes, acyl ghrelin increased fractional shortening, did not affect cellular Ca2+ transients, and reduced troponin I phosphorylation. The increase in fractional shortening and reduction in troponin I phosphorylation was blocked by the acyl ghrelin antagonist D-Lys 3. CONCLUSION In patients with HFrEF, acyl ghrelin increased cardiac output without causing hypotension, tachycardia, arrhythmia, or ischaemia. In isolated cardiomyocytes, acyl ghrelin increased contractility independently of preload and afterload and without Ca2+ mobilization, which may explain the lack of clinical side effects. Ghrelin treatment should be explored in additional randomized trials. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05277415.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars H Lund
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Heart and Vascular Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Norrbacka, S1:02, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Camilla Hage
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Heart and Vascular Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Norrbacka, S1:02, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gianluigi Pironti
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Solnavägen 9 171 65 Solna, Sweden
| | - Tonje Thorvaldsen
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Heart and Vascular Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Norrbacka, S1:02, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ulrika Ljung-Faxén
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Perioperative Medicine and Intensive Care, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stanislava Zabarovskaja
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kambiz Shahgaldi
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Sunderby Hospital, 971 80 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Dominic-Luc Webb
- Department of Medical Sciences, Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Uppsala University, 751 05 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per M Hellström
- Department of Medical Sciences, Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Uppsala University, 751 05 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Daniel C Andersson
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Heart and Vascular Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Norrbacka, S1:02, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Solnavägen 9 171 65 Solna, Sweden
| | - Marcus Ståhlberg
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Cardiology, Karolinska Institutet, D1:04, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Heart and Vascular Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Norrbacka, S1:02, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
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Wada R, Takemi S, Matsumoto M, Iijima M, Sakai T, Sakata I. Molecular cloning and analysis of the ghrelin/GHSR system in Xenopus tropicalis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 331:114167. [PMID: 36402245 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.114167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a gut-derived peptide with several physiological functions, including feeding, gastrointestinal motility, and hormonal secretion. Recently, a host defense peptide, liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide-2 (LEAP2), was reported as an endogenous antagonist of growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R). The physiological relevance of the molecular LEAP2-GHS-R interaction in mammals has been explored; however, studies on non-mammals are limited. Here, we report the identification and functional characterization of ghrelin and its related molecules in Western clawed frog (Xenopus tropicalis), a known model organism. We first identified cDNA encoding X. tropicalis ghrelin and GHS-R. RT-qPCR revealed that ghrelin mRNA expression was most abundant in the stomach. GHS-R mRNA was widely distributed in the brain and peripheral tissues, and a relatively strong signal was observed in the stomach and intestine. In addition, LEAP2 was mainly expressed in intestinal tissues at higher levels than in the liver. In functional analysis, X. tropicalis ghrelin and human ghrelin induced intracellular Ca2+ mobilization with EC50 values in the low nanomolar range in CHO-K1 cells expressing X. tropicalis GHS-R. Furthermore, ghrelin-induced GHS-R activation was antagonized with IC50 values in the nanomolar range by heterologous human LEAP2. We also validated the expression of ghrelin and feeding-related factors under fasting conditions. After 2 days of fasting, no changes in ghrelin mRNA levels were observed in the stomach, but GHS-R mRNA levels were significantly increased, associated with significant downregulation of nucb2. In addition, LEAP2 upregulation was observed in the duodenum. These results provide the first evidence that LEAP2 functions as an antagonist of GHS-R in the anuran amphibian X. tropicalis. It has also been suggested that the ghrelin/GHS-R/LEAP2 system may be involved in energy homeostasis in X. tropicalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiko Wada
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Shota Takemi
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Mio Matsumoto
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Mio Iijima
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Takafumi Sakai
- Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Ichiro Sakata
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan.
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Gusmao DO, de Sousa ME, Tavares MR, Donato J. Increased GH Secretion and Body Growth in Mice Carrying Ablation of IGF-1 Receptor in GH-releasing Hormone Cells. Endocrinology 2022; 163:6696879. [PMID: 36099517 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqac151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) secretion is controlled by short and long negative feedback loops. In this regard, both GH (short-loop feedback) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1; long-loop feedback) can target somatotropic cells of the pituitary gland and neuroendocrine hypothalamic neurons to regulate the GH/IGF-1 axis. GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)-expressing neurons play a fundamental role in stimulating pituitary GH secretion. However, it is currently unknown whether IGF-1 action on GHRH-expressing cells is required for the control of the GH/IGF-1/growth axis. In the present study, we investigated the phenotype of male and female mice carrying ablation of IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R) exclusively in GHRH cells. After weaning, both male and female GHRHΔIGF1R mice exhibited increases in body weight, lean body mass, linear growth, and length of long bones (tibia, femur, humerus, and radius). In contrast, the percentage of body fat was similar between control and GHRHΔIGF1R mice. The higher body growth of GHRHΔIGF1R mice can be explained by increases in mean GH levels, GH pulse amplitude, and pulse frequency, calculated from 36 blood samples collected from each animal at 10-minute intervals. GHRHΔIGF1R mice also showed increased hypothalamic Ghrh mRNA levels, pituitary Gh mRNA expression, hepatic Igf1 expression, and serum IGF-1 levels compared with control animals. Furthermore, GHRHΔIGF1R mice displayed significant alterations in the sexually dimorphic hepatic gene expression profile, with a prevailing feminization in most genes analyzed. In conclusion, our findings indicate that GHRH neurons represent a key and necessary site for the long-loop negative feedback that controls the GH/IGF-1 axis and body growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela O Gusmao
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Maria E de Sousa
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Mariana R Tavares
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Jose Donato
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
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Al-Massadi O, Parini P, Fernø J, Luquet S, Quiñones M. Metabolic actions of the growth hormone-insulin growth factor-1 axis and its interaction with the central nervous system. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2022; 23:919-930. [PMID: 35687272 DOI: 10.1007/s11154-022-09732-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The growth hormone/insulin growth factor-1 axis is a key endocrine system that exerts profound effects on metabolism by its actions on different peripheral tissues but also in the brain. Growth hormone together with insulin growth factor-1 perform metabolic adjustments, including regulation of food intake, energy expenditure, and glycemia. The dysregulation of this hepatic axis leads to different metabolic disorders including obesity, type 2 diabetes or liver disease. In this review, we discuss how the growth hormone/insulin growth factor-1 axis regulates metabolism and its interactions with the central nervous system. Finally, we state our vision for possible therapeutic uses of compounds based in the components of this hepatic axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Al-Massadi
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago (CHUS/SERGAS), Travesía da Choupana s/n, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Paolo Parini
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Chemistry, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Medicine, Metabolism Unit, Karolinska Institute at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- Patient Area Nephrology and Endocrinology, Inflammation and Infection Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johan Fernø
- Hormone Laboratory, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Serge Luquet
- Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 8251, F-75205, Paris, France
| | - Mar Quiñones
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago (CHUS/SERGAS), Travesía da Choupana s/n, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
- CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
- Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 8251, F-75205, Paris, France.
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Mo G, Hu B, Wei P, Luo Q, Zhang X. The Role of Chicken Prolactin, Growth Hormone and Their Receptors in the Immune System. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:900041. [PMID: 35910654 PMCID: PMC9331192 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.900041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) exhibit important roles in the immune system maintenance. In poultry, PRL mainly plays its roles in nesting, hatching, and reproduction, while GH is primarily responding to body weight, fat formation and feed conversion. In this review, we attempt to provide a critical overview of the relationship between PRL and GH, PRLR and GHR, and the immune response of poultry. We also propose a hypothesis that PRL, GH and their receptors might be used by viruses as viral receptors. This may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of viral infection and host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Mo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bowen Hu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ping Wei
- Institute for Poultry Science and Health, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Qingbin Luo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiquan Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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de Souza GO, Wasinski F, Donato J. Characterization of the metabolic differences between male and female C57BL/6 mice. Life Sci 2022; 301:120636. [PMID: 35568227 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.120636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The present study aims to compare the responses between male and female C57BL/6 mice to multiple metabolic challenges to understand the importance of sex in the control of energy homeostasis. MAIN METHODS Male and female C57BL/6 mice were subjected to nutritional and hormonal challenges, such as food restriction and refeeding, diet-induced obesity, feeding response to ghrelin and leptin, ghrelin-induced growth hormone secretion, and central responsiveness to ghrelin and leptin. The hypothalamic expression of transcripts that control energy homeostasis was also evaluated. KEY FINDINGS Male mice lost more weight and lean body mass in response to food restriction, compared to females. During refeeding, males accumulated more body fat and exhibited lower energy expenditure and glycemia, as compared to females. Additionally, female mice exhibited a higher protection against diet-induced obesity and related metabolic imbalances in comparison to males. Low dose ghrelin injection elicited higher food intake and growth hormone secretion in male mice, whereas the acute anorexigenic effect of leptin was more robust in females. However, the sex differences in the feeding responses to ghrelin and leptin were not explained by variations in the central responsiveness to these hormones nor by differences in the fiber density from arcuate nucleus neurons. Female, but not male, mice exhibited compensatory increases in hypothalamic Pomc mRNA levels in response to diet-induced obesity. SIGNIFICANCE Our findings revealed several sexually differentiated responses to metabolic challenges in C57BL/6 mice, highlighting the importance of taking into account sex differences in metabolic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel O de Souza
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Frederick Wasinski
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Jose Donato
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil..
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Wasinski F, Barrile F, Pedroso JAB, Quaresma PGF, dos Santos WO, List EO, Kopchick JJ, Perelló M, Donato J. Ghrelin-induced Food Intake, but not GH Secretion, Requires the Expression of the GH Receptor in the Brain of Male Mice. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6273366. [PMID: 33972988 PMCID: PMC8197284 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin stimulates both GH secretion and food intake. The orexigenic action of ghrelin is mainly mediated by neurons that coexpress agouti-related protein (AgRP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARH). GH also stimulates food intake and, importantly, ARHAgRP/NPY neurons express GH receptor (GHR). Thus, ghrelin-induced GH secretion may contribute to the orexigenic effect of ghrelin. Here, we investigated the response to ghrelin in male mice carrying GHR ablation specifically in neurons (brain GHR knockout [KO] mice) or exclusively in ARHAgRP/NPY neurons (AgRP GHR KO mice). Although brain GHR KO mice showed normal ghrelin-induced increase in plasma GH levels, these mutants lacked the expected orexigenic response to ghrelin. Additionally, brain GHR KO mice displayed reduced hypothalamic levels of Npy and Ghsr mRNA and did not elicit ghrelin-induced c-Fos expression in the ARH. Furthermore, brain GHR KO mice exhibited a prominent reduction in AgRP fiber density in the ARH and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH). In contrast, AgRP GHR KO mice showed no changes in the hypothalamic Npy and Ghsr mRNAs and conserved ghrelin-induced food intake and c-Fos expression in the ARH. AgRP GHR KO mice displayed a reduced AgRP fiber density (~16%) in the PVH, but this reduction was less than that observed in brain GHR KO mice (~61%). Our findings indicate that GHR signaling in the brain is required for the orexigenic effect of ghrelin, independently of GH action on ARHAgRP/NPY neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick Wasinski
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Franco Barrile
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Multidisciplinary Institute of Cell Biology, La Plata, BA, 1900, Argentina
| | - João A B Pedroso
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Paula G F Quaresma
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Willian O dos Santos
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Edward O List
- Edison Biotechnology Institute and Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - John J Kopchick
- Edison Biotechnology Institute and Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Mario Perelló
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Multidisciplinary Institute of Cell Biology, La Plata, BA, 1900, Argentina
- Correspondence: Mario Perelló, PhD, Multidisciplinary Institute of Cell Biology, Calle 526 S/N entre 10 y 11, La Plata, Buenos Aires, 1900. Argentina.
| | - Jose Donato
- Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: Jose Donato Jr., PhD, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas. Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 1524, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil;
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Shi X, Guan K, Peng X, Xu B, Zhou X, Wang S, Xu S, Zheng M, Huang J, Wan X, Guan W, Su KP, Ye M, Gao X, Yin Z, Li X. Ghrelin modulates dopaminergic neuron formation and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like behaviors: From animals to human models. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 94:327-337. [PMID: 33412253 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in children. The orexigenic hormone ghrelin is important in neuroprotection and neurodevelopment, which may play an important role in psychopathogenesis of ADHD. This study aimed to systematically investigate the genomic and pharmacological manipulations of ghrelin functioning in ADHD-like symptoms in zebrafish models and validated the effects of ghrelin polymorphisms in human subjects with ADHD. We firstly generated ghrelinΔ/Δ zebrafish mutant, which displayed hyperactive, attention deficit-like and impulsive-like behaviors, as well as endophenotypes, mimicking human ADHD. GhrelinΔ/Δ zebrafish exhibited downregulated expression levels of wnt1, wnt3a, wnt5a that are critical for dopaminergic neuron development to possibly regulate their number and spatial organization. Pharmacological blockade of wnt signaling with XAV939 induced a reduced moving activity and less dopaminergic neurons; whereas, wnt agonist SB415286 rescued hyperactivity and dopaminergic neuron loss in ghrelinΔ/Δ zebrafish. In addition, we further identified and validated a SNP, rs696217, on orexigenic hormone preproghrelin/ghrelin (T408T, Met72Met) to be associated with a higher risk of ADHD in a case-controlled association study with 248 subjects with ADHD and 208 subjects of healthy controls. Together, our results reveal a novel endogenous role for orexigenic hormone ghrelin in ADHD, which provides insights into genetic regulation and drug screens for the identification of novel treatments of ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xulai Shi
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Kaiyu Guan
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Xuyan Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Bingru Xu
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Xianyong Zhou
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Shao Wang
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Shengnan Xu
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Miaomiao Zheng
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Jing Huang
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Xiaoyang Wan
- Institute of Infectious Liver Disease, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wanchun Guan
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Kuan-Pin Su
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; An-Nan Hospital, China Medical University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Minjie Ye
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Central Laboratory, Scientific Research Department, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Zhan Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
| | - Xi Li
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, Zhejiang Province, PR China.
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11
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Schalla MA, Taché Y, Stengel A. Neuroendocrine Peptides of the Gut and Their Role in the Regulation of Food Intake. Compr Physiol 2021; 11:1679-1730. [PMID: 33792904 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c200007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The regulation of food intake encompasses complex interplays between the gut and the brain. Among them, the gastrointestinal tract releases different peptides that communicate the metabolic state to specific nuclei in the hindbrain and the hypothalamus. The present overview gives emphasis on seven peptides that are produced by and secreted from specialized enteroendocrine cells along the gastrointestinal tract in relation with the nutritional status. These established modulators of feeding are ghrelin and nesfatin-1 secreted from gastric X/A-like cells, cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted from duodenal I-cells, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), oxyntomodulin, and peptide YY (PYY) secreted from intestinal L-cells and uroguanylin (UGN) released from enterochromaffin (EC) cells. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1679-1730, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha A Schalla
- Charité Center for Internal Medicine and Dermatology, Department for Psychosomatic Medicine, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yvette Taché
- Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA.,VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andreas Stengel
- Charité Center for Internal Medicine and Dermatology, Department for Psychosomatic Medicine, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical University Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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12
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Donato J, Wasinski F, Furigo IC, Metzger M, Frazão R. Central Regulation of Metabolism by Growth Hormone. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010129. [PMID: 33440789 PMCID: PMC7827386 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the pituitary gland, and in addition to its classical functions of regulating height, protein synthesis, tissue growth, and cell proliferation, GH exerts profound effects on metabolism. In this regard, GH stimulates lipolysis in white adipose tissue and antagonizes insulin's effects on glycemic control. During the last decade, a wide distribution of GH-responsive neurons were identified in numerous brain areas, especially in hypothalamic nuclei, that control metabolism. The specific role of GH action in different neuronal populations is now starting to be uncovered, and so far, it indicates that the brain is an important target of GH for the regulation of food intake, energy expenditure, and glycemia and neuroendocrine changes, particularly in response to different forms of metabolic stress such as glucoprivation, food restriction, and physical exercise. The objective of the present review is to summarize the current knowledge about the potential role of GH action in the brain for the regulation of different metabolic aspects. The findings gathered here allow us to suggest that GH represents a hormonal factor that conveys homeostatic information to the brain to produce metabolic adjustments in order to promote energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Donato
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (F.W.); (I.C.F.); (M.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-1130910929
| | - Frederick Wasinski
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (F.W.); (I.C.F.); (M.M.)
| | - Isadora C. Furigo
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (F.W.); (I.C.F.); (M.M.)
| | - Martin Metzger
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (F.W.); (I.C.F.); (M.M.)
| | - Renata Frazão
- Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-900, Brazil;
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13
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Hedegaard MA, Holst B. The Complex Signaling Pathways of the Ghrelin Receptor. Endocrinology 2020; 161:5734640. [PMID: 32049280 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqaa020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The ghrelin receptor (GhrR) is known for its strong orexigenic effects in pharmacological doses and has long been considered as a promising target for the treatment of obesity. Several antagonists have been developed to decrease the orexigenic signaling, but none of these have been approved for the treatment of obesity because of adverse effects and lack of efficacy. Heterodimerization and biased signaling are important concepts for G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, and the influence of these aspects on the GhrR may be important for feeding behavior and obesity. GhrR has been described to heterodimerize with other GPCRs, such as the dopamine receptors 1 and 2, leading to a modulation of the signaling properties of both dimerization partners. Another complicating factor of GhrR-mediated signaling is its ability to activate several different signaling pathways on ligand stimulation. Importantly, some ligands have shown to be "biased" or "functionally selective," implying that the ligand favors a particular signaling pathway. These unique signaling properties could have a sizeable impact on the physiological functions of the GhrR system. Importantly, heterodimerization may explain why the GhrR is expressed in areas of the brain that are difficult for peptide ligands to access. One possibility is that the purpose of GhrR expression is to modulate the function of other receptors in addition to merely being independently activated. We suggest that a deeper understanding of the signaling properties of the GhrR will facilitate future drug discovery in the areas of obesity and weight management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Adler Hedegaard
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Birgitte Holst
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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14
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Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are two of the most common liver diseases associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome. The prevalence of these conditions are increasingly rising and presently there is not a pharmacological option available in the market. Elucidation of the mechanism of action and the molecular underpinnings behind liver disease could help to better understand the pathophysiology of these illnesses. In this sense, in the last years modulation of the ghrelin system in preclinical animal models emerge as a promising therapeutic tool. In this review, we compile the latest knowledge of the modulation of ghrelin system and its intracellular pathways that regulates lipid metabolism, hepatic inflammation and liver fibrosis. We also describe novel processes implicated in the regulation of liver disease by ghrelin, such as autophagy or dysregulated circadian rhythms. In conclusion, the information displayed in this review support that the ghrelin system could be an appealing strategy for the treatment of liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Quiñones
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Johan Fernø
- Hormone Laboratory, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Omar Al-Massadi
- Inserm UMR-S1270, 75005, Paris, France.
- Faculté des Sciences et d'Ingénierie, Sorbonne Université, 75005, Paris, France.
- Institut du Fer a Moulin, Inserm, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, 75005, Paris, France.
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15
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Dar SA, Srivastava PP, Rather MA, Varghese T, Rasool SI, Gupta S. Molecular and computational analysis of Ghrelin, growth hormone Secretagogues receptor and mRNA expression of Growth-related genes after exogenous administered ghrelin peptide in Labeo rohita. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 142:756-768. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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16
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Ghrelin octanoylation by ghrelin O-acyltransferase: Unique protein biochemistry underlying metabolic signaling. Biochem Soc Trans 2019; 47:169-178. [PMID: 30626708 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a small peptide hormone that requires a unique post-translational modification, serine octanoylation, to bind and activate the GHS-R1a receptor. Ghrelin signaling is implicated in a variety of neurological and physiological processes, but is most well known for its roles in controlling hunger and metabolic regulation. Ghrelin octanoylation is catalyzed by ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT), a member of the membrane-bound O-acyltransferase (MBOAT) enzyme family. From the status of ghrelin as the only substrate for GOAT in the human genome to the source and requirement for the octanoyl acyl donor, the ghrelin-GOAT system is defined by multiple unique aspects within both protein biochemistry and endocrinology. In this review, we examine recent advances in our understanding of the interactions and mechanisms leading to ghrelin modification by GOAT, discuss the potential sources for the octanoyl acyl donor required for ghrelin's activation, and summarize the current landscape of molecules targeting ghrelin octanoylation through GOAT inhibition.
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17
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Al-Massadi O, Müller T, Tschöp M, Diéguez C, Nogueiras R. Ghrelin and LEAP-2: Rivals in Energy Metabolism. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2018; 39:685-694. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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18
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Ikenoya C, Takemi S, Kaminoda A, Aizawa S, Ojima S, Gong Z, Chacrabati R, Kondo D, Wada R, Tanaka T, Tsuda S, Sakai T, Sakata I. β-Oxidation in ghrelin-producing cells is important for ghrelin acyl-modification. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9176. [PMID: 29907775 PMCID: PMC6003948 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27458-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin is a unique fatty acid-modified peptide hormone produced in the stomach and has important roles in energy homeostasis and gastrointestinal motility. However, the medium-chain fatty acid source for ghrelin acyl-modification is not known. We found that a fat-free diet and the removal of intestinal microbiota did not decrease acyl-ghrelin production in the stomach or plasma acyl-ghrelin levels in mice. RT-PCR analysis showed that genes involving fatty acid synthesis, metabolism, and transport were expressed in pancreas-derived ghrelinoma (PG-1) cells. Treatment with an irreversible inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1) strongly decreased acylated ghrelin levels but did not affect ghrelin or ghrelin o-acyl transferase (GOAT) mRNA levels in PG-1 cells. Our results suggest that the medium-chain fatty acid used for the acyl-modification of ghrelin is produced in ghrelin-producing cells themselves by β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids provided from the circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chika Ikenoya
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Shota Takemi
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Arisa Kaminoda
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, 3-1-1, Tsushimanaka, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Sayaka Aizawa
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, 3-1-1, Tsushimanaka, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Shiomi Ojima
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Zhi Gong
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Rakhi Chacrabati
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kondo
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Reiko Wada
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Toru Tanaka
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Josai University, 1-1 Keiyaki dai, Sakado, Saitama, 350-0295, Japan
| | - Sachiko Tsuda
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan.,Research and Development Bureau, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Takafumi Sakai
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan.,Area of Life-NanoBio, Division of Strategy Research, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Ichiro Sakata
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakuraku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan.
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19
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Cleverdon ER, McGovern-Gooch KR, Hougland JL. The octanoylated energy regulating hormone ghrelin: An expanded view of ghrelin's biological interactions and avenues for controlling ghrelin signaling. Mol Membr Biol 2017; 33:111-124. [PMID: 29143554 DOI: 10.1080/09687688.2017.1388930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a small peptide hormone that requires a unique post-translational modification, serine octanoylation, to bind and activate the GHS-R1a receptor. Initially demonstrated to stimulate hunger and appetite, ghrelin-dependent signaling is implicated in a variety of neurological and physiological processes influencing diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and Prader-Willi syndrome. In addition to its cognate receptor, recent studies have revealed ghrelin interacts with a range of binding partners within the bloodstream. Defining the scope of ghrelin's interactions within the body, understanding how these interactions work in concert to modulate ghrelin signaling, and developing molecular tools for controlling ghrelin signaling are essential for exploiting ghrelin for therapeutic effect. In this review, we discuss recent findings regarding the biological effects of ghrelin signaling, outline binding partners that control ghrelin trafficking and stability in circulation, and summarize the current landscape of inhibitors targeting ghrelin octanoylation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - James L Hougland
- a Department of Chemistry , Syracuse University , Syracuse , NY , USA
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20
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Abstract
Obesity, a major risk factor for the development of diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer, arises from a chronic positive energy balance that is often due to unlimited access to food and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle on the background of a genetic and epigenetic vulnerability. Our understanding of the humoral and neuronal systems that mediate the control of energy homeostasis has improved dramatically in the past few decades. However, our ability to develop effective strategies to slow the current epidemic of obesity has been hampered, largely owing to the limited knowledge of the mechanisms underlying resistance to the action of metabolic hormones such as leptin and ghrelin. The development of resistance to leptin and ghrelin, hormones that are crucial for the neuroendocrine control of energy homeostasis, is a hallmark of obesity. Intensive research over the past several years has yielded tremendous progress in our understanding of the cellular pathways that disrupt the action of leptin and ghrelin. In this Review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underpinning resistance to leptin and ghrelin and how they can be exploited as targets for pharmacological management of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huxing Cui
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52246, USA
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Miguel López
- Department of Physiology, Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CiMUS), University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Kamal Rahmouni
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52246, USA
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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21
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Ho YY, Nakato J, Mizushige T, Kanamoto R, Tanida M, Akiduki S, Ohinata K. l-Ornithine stimulates growth hormone release in a manner dependent on the ghrelin system. Food Funct 2017; 8:2110-2114. [PMID: 28513740 DOI: 10.1039/c7fo00309a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We found that intraduodenal administration of l-ornithine (l-Orn) stimulates growth hormone (GH) secretion in Wistar rats, and then investigated its mechanism. GH-releasing activity after intraduodenal administration of l-Orn was blocked by [d-Lys3]-GHRP-6, an antagonist of the ghrelin receptor; however, l-Orn (100 μM) has no affinity for the ghrelin receptor, suggesting that the GH-releasing activity of l-Orn is mediated via ghrelin release and activation of the ghrelin receptor. Intraduodenally administered l-Orn increased ghrelin mRNA expression in the duodenum but not in the stomach or hypothalamus. In addition, l-Orn-induced GH-releasing activity was inhibited by propranolol, an antagonist of β-adrenergic receptor, which is known to be coupled to ghrelin release. In conclusion, intraduodenally administered l-Orn stimulates GH secretion through the sympathetic nervous and ghrelin systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Yin Ho
- Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
| | - Junya Nakato
- Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
| | - Takafumi Mizushige
- Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan. and Research Unit for Physiological Chemistry, C-PIER, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Ryuhei Kanamoto
- Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
| | - Mamoru Tanida
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-kita, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan and Department of Physiology II Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
| | - Saori Akiduki
- Healthcare Products Development Center, Kyowa Hakko Bio Co., Ltd, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0841, Japan
| | - Kousaku Ohinata
- Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
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22
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Al Massadi O, López M, Tschöp M, Diéguez C, Nogueiras R. Current Understanding of the Hypothalamic Ghrelin Pathways Inducing Appetite and Adiposity. Trends Neurosci 2017; 40:167-180. [PMID: 28108113 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a multifaceted regulator of metabolism. Ghrelin regulates energy balance in the short term via induction of appetite and in the long term via increased body weight and adiposity. Recently, several central pathways modulating the metabolic actions of ghrelin were unmasked, and it was shown to act through different hypothalamic nuclei to induce feeding. Ghrelin also modulates glucose homeostasis, but the central mechanisms responsible for this action have not been studied in detail. Although ghrelin also acts through extrahypothalamic areas to promote feeding, this review specifically dissects hypothalamic control of ghrelin's orexigenic and adipogenic actions and presents current understanding of the intracellular ghrelin orexigenic pathways, including their dependence on other relevant systems implicated in energy balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Al Massadi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CiMUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av de Barcelona s/n Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña), 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain.
| | - Miguel López
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CiMUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av de Barcelona s/n Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña), 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain
| | - Matthias Tschöp
- Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München and German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany; Division of Metabolic Diseases, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Carlos Diéguez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CiMUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av de Barcelona s/n Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña), 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain
| | - Ruben Nogueiras
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CiMUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av de Barcelona s/n Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña), 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Spain.
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Physiological roles for butyrylcholinesterase: A BChE-ghrelin axis. Chem Biol Interact 2016; 259:271-275. [PMID: 26915976 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) has long been regarded as an "orphan enzyme" with no specific physiological role other than to metabolize exogenous bioactive esters in the diet or in medicines. Human beings with genetic mutations that eliminate all BChE activity appear completely normal, and BChE-knockout mice have been described as "lacking a phenotype" except for faster weight gain on high-fat diets. However, our recent studies with viral gene transfer of BChE in mice reveal that BChE hydrolyzes the so-called "hunger hormone," ghrelin, at a rate which strongly affects the circulating levels of this peptide hormone. This action has important consequences for weight gain and fat metabolism. Surprisingly, it also impacts emotional behaviors such as aggression. Overexpression of BChE leads to low ghrelin levels in the blood stream and reduces aggression and social stress in mice. Under certain circumstances these combined effects contribute to increased life-span in group-housed animals. These findings may generalize to humans, as recent clinical studies by multiple investigators indicate that, among patients with severe cardiovascular disease, longevity correlates with increasing levels of plasma BChE activity.
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Ghrelin Actions on Somatotropic and Gonadotropic Function in Humans. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2016; 138:3-25. [PMID: 26940384 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin, a 28 amino-acid octanoylated peptide predominantly produced by the stomach, was discovered to be the natural ligand of the type 1a GH secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a). It was thus considered as a natural GHS additional to GHRH, although later on ghrelin has mostly been considered a major orexigenic factor. The GH-releasing action of ghrelin takes place both directly on pituitary cells and through modulation of GHRH from the hypothalamus; some functional antisomatostatin action has also been shown. However, ghrelin is much more than a natural GH secretagogue. In fact, it also modulates lactotroph and corticotroph secretion in humans as well as in animals and plays a relevant role in the modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal function. Several studies have indicated that ghrelin plays an inhibitory effect on gonadotropin pulsatility, is involved in the regulation of puberty onset in animals, and may regulate spermatogenesis, follicular development and ovarian cell functions in humans. In this chapter ghrelin actions on the GH/IGF-I and the gonadal axes will be revised. The potential therapeutic role of ghrelin as a treatment of catabolic conditions will also be discussed.
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Abstract
The purpose of this review is to draw attention to the limited information available on food intake (FI) control in children and adolescents 7-17 y of age, which is essential for developing food policies and guidelines in this population. Although environmental factors have been the overwhelming focus of research on the causative factors of obesity, research focusing on the physiologic control of appetite in children and adolescents is a neglected area of research. To present this message, a review of FI regulation and the role of food and food components in signaling processes are followed by an examination of the role of hormones during puberty in intake regulation. To examine the interaction of environment and physiology on FI regulation, the effects of exercise, television programs, and food advertisements are discussed. In conclusion, although limited, this literature review supports a need for children and adolescents to be a greater focus of research that would lead to sound nutrition policies and actions to reduce chronic disease. A focus on the environment must be balanced with an understanding of physiologic and behavioral changes associated with this age group.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Harvey Anderson
- Department for Nutritional Sciences and Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Barja-Fernandez S, Folgueira C, Castelao C, Leis R, Crujeiras AB, Casanueva FF, Seoane LM. Regulation of Growth Hormone by the Splanchnic Area. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2016; 138:41-60. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Interacting Neural Processes of Feeding, Hyperactivity, Stress, Reward, and the Utility of the Activity-Based Anorexia Model of Anorexia Nervosa. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2016; 24:416-436. [PMID: 27824637 PMCID: PMC5485261 DOI: 10.1097/hrp.0000000000000111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a psychiatric illness with minimal effective treatments and a very high rate of mortality. Understanding the neurobiological underpinnings of the disease is imperative for improving outcomes and can be aided by the study of animal models. The activity-based anorexia rodent model (ABA) is the current best parallel for the study of AN. This review describes the basic neurobiology of feeding and hyperactivity seen in both ABA and AN, and compiles the research on the role that stress-response and reward pathways play in modulating the homeostatic drive to eat and to expend energy, which become dysfunctional in ABA and AN.
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Radiometric assay of ghrelin hydrolase activity and 3H-ghrelin distribution into mouse tissues. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 98:732-9. [PMID: 26514871 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A high-throughput radiometric assay was developed to characterize enzymatic hydrolysis of ghrelin and to track the peptide's fate in vivo. The assay is based on solvent partitioning of [(3)H]-octanoic acid liberated from [(3)H]-octanoyl ghrelin during enzymatic hydrolysis. This simple and cost-effective method facilitates kinetic analysis of ghrelin hydrolase activity of native and mutated butyrylcholinesterases or carboxylesterases from multiple species. In addition, the assay's high sensitivity facilitates ready evaluation of ghrelin's pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution in mice after i.v. bolus administration of radiolabeled peptide.
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Jensen KB, Forcada Y, Church DB, Niessen SJM. Evaluation and diagnostic potential of serum ghrelin in feline hypersomatotropism and diabetes mellitus. J Vet Intern Med 2015; 29:14-20. [PMID: 25619512 PMCID: PMC4858111 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ghrelin is a growth hormone secretagogue. It is a potent regulator of energy homeostasis. Ghrelin concentration is down‐regulated in humans with hypersomatotropism (HS) and increases after successful treatment. Additionally, ghrelin secretion seems impaired in human diabetes mellitus (DM). Hypothesis Serum ghrelin concentration is down‐regulated in cats with HS‐induced DM (HSDM) compared to healthy control cats or cats with DM unrelated to HS and increases after radiotherapy. Animals Cats with DM (n = 20) and with HSDM (n = 32), 13 of which underwent radiotherapy (RT‐group); age‐matched controls (n = 20). Methods Retrospective cross‐sectional study. Analytical performance of a serum total ghrelin ELISA was assessed and validated for use in cats. Differences in serum ghrelin, fructosamine, IGF‐1 and insulin were evaluated. Results Ghrelin was significantly higher (P < .001) in control cats (mean ± SD: 12.9 ± 6.8 ng/mL) compared to HSDM‐ (7.9 ± 3.3 ng/mL) and DM‐cats (6.7 ± 2.3 ng/mL), although not different between the HSDM‐ and DM‐cats. After RT ghrelin increased significantly (P = .003) in HSDM‐cats undergoing RT (from 6.6 ± 1.9 ng/mL to 9.0 ± 2.2 ng/mL) and the after RT ghrelin concentrations of HSDM cats were no longer significantly different from the serum ghrelin concentration of control cats. Serum IGF‐1 did not significantly change in HSDM‐cats after RT, despite significant decreases in fructosamine and insulin dose. Conclusion and Clinical Importance Ghrelin appears suppressed in cats with DM and HSDM, although increases after RT in HSDM, suggesting possible presence of a direct or indirect negative feedback system between growth hormone and ghrelin. Serum ghrelin might therefore represent a marker of treatment effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- K B Jensen
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
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Wellman M, Abizaid A. Knockdown of central ghrelin O-acyltransferase by vivo-morpholino reduces body mass of rats fed a high-fat diet. Peptides 2015; 70:17-22. [PMID: 26028164 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The enzyme ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT) activates the orexigenic peptide ghrelin by transferring an acyl group from fatty acids to the serine-3 residue of the ghrelin molecule. This allows ghrelin to bind to its only known receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor type 1a (GHSR1a). While studies have examined the hypothalamic transcriptional response of GOAT to metabolic challenge in mice, little has been examined in the rat hypothalamus. Furthermore, it has not been possible to identify the role of central GOAT separate from that of the periphery, since previous studies either knocked out GOAT system-wide or administered a GOAT inhibitor intraperitoneally. To determine if central GOAT expression is modulated by changes in energy state, we subjected rats to either forty-eight hours of food deprivation or three weeks of food restriction and found that GOAT mRNA increases significantly in both the hypothalamus and the stomach fundus in response to both metabolic challenges. We also found increases in hypothalamic ghrelin mRNA and stomach GHSR1a mRNA in response to food deprivation, as well as increases in hypothalamic GHSR1a mRNA in response to food restriction. We then conducted a second study where we continuously infused amorpholino antisense oligonucleotide into the lateral ventricles of rats to knock-down GOAT centrally while the animals were exposed to a high fat diet. Our results show that rats receiving the GOAT antisense gained less weight, and decreased their caloric efficiency when eating a high fat diet compared to control animals. These data suggest that central GOAT plays a role in modulating metabolism in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Wellman
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Alfonso Abizaid
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
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Al Massadi O, López M, Fernø J, Diéguez C, Nogueiras R. What is the real relevance of endogenous ghrelin? Peptides 2015; 70:1-6. [PMID: 26003396 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2015.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a pleiotropic and ubiquitous gastric hormone implicated in body physiology. Ghrelin exhibits potent orexigenic actions and increases body weight and adiposity. Ghrelin is also involved in other metabolic functions among which we can highlight the GH releasing activity and the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Ghrelin needs the enzyme GOAT to be acylated, a step essential for binding to the GHSR1a receptor to exert its functions. Genetic animal models emerge as important tools to delineate the physiological relevance of ghrelin on energy balance. Despite the numerous reports using different genetically engineered mouse models targeting the ghrelin system, its endogenous relevance in metabolism seems to be less important than its pharmaceutical options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Al Massadi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CIMUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Avda. Barcelona s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutricion (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña) 15706, Spain.
| | - Miguel López
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CIMUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Avda. Barcelona s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutricion (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña) 15706, Spain
| | - Johan Fernø
- Department of Clinical Science, K. G. Jebsen Center for Diabetes Research, University of Bergen, Bergen N-5020, Norway
| | - Carlos Diéguez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CIMUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Avda. Barcelona s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutricion (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña) 15706, Spain
| | - Rubén Nogueiras
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine-CIMUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Avda. Barcelona s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y Nutricion (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña) 15706, Spain.
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Müller TD, Nogueiras R, Andermann ML, Andrews ZB, Anker SD, Argente J, Batterham RL, Benoit SC, Bowers CY, Broglio F, Casanueva FF, D'Alessio D, Depoortere I, Geliebter A, Ghigo E, Cole PA, Cowley M, Cummings DE, Dagher A, Diano S, Dickson SL, Diéguez C, Granata R, Grill HJ, Grove K, Habegger KM, Heppner K, Heiman ML, Holsen L, Holst B, Inui A, Jansson JO, Kirchner H, Korbonits M, Laferrère B, LeRoux CW, Lopez M, Morin S, Nakazato M, Nass R, Perez-Tilve D, Pfluger PT, Schwartz TW, Seeley RJ, Sleeman M, Sun Y, Sussel L, Tong J, Thorner MO, van der Lely AJ, van der Ploeg LHT, Zigman JM, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Smith RG, Horvath T, Tschöp MH. Ghrelin. Mol Metab 2015; 4:437-60. [PMID: 26042199 PMCID: PMC4443295 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2015.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 712] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gastrointestinal peptide hormone ghrelin was discovered in 1999 as the endogenous ligand of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Increasing evidence supports more complicated and nuanced roles for the hormone, which go beyond the regulation of systemic energy metabolism. SCOPE OF REVIEW In this review, we discuss the diverse biological functions of ghrelin, the regulation of its secretion, and address questions that still remain 15 years after its discovery. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS In recent years, ghrelin has been found to have a plethora of central and peripheral actions in distinct areas including learning and memory, gut motility and gastric acid secretion, sleep/wake rhythm, reward seeking behavior, taste sensation and glucose metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Müller
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - R Nogueiras
- Department of Physiology, Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas, University of Santiago de Compostela (CIMUS)-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS)-CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - M L Andermann
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Z B Andrews
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - S D Anker
- Applied Cachexia Research, Department of Cardiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - J Argente
- Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric Endocrinology, Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Instituto de Investigación La Princesa, Madrid, Spain ; Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and CIBER Fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - R L Batterham
- Centre for Obesity Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - S C Benoit
- Metabolic Disease Institute, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - C Y Bowers
- Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Section, Peptide Research Section, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - F Broglio
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Dept. of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - F F Casanueva
- Department of Medicine, Santiago de Compostela University, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago (CHUS), CIBER de Fisiopatologia Obesidad y Nutricion (CB06/03), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - D D'Alessio
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - I Depoortere
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - A Geliebter
- New York Obesity Nutrition Research Center, Department of Medicine, St Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - E Ghigo
- Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - P A Cole
- Monash Obesity & Diabetes Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - M Cowley
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia ; Monash Obesity & Diabetes Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - D E Cummings
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - A Dagher
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - S Diano
- Dept of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - S L Dickson
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - C Diéguez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - R Granata
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Dept. of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - H J Grill
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - K Grove
- Department of Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - K M Habegger
- Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - K Heppner
- Division of Diabetes, Obesity, and Metabolism, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - M L Heiman
- NuMe Health, 1441 Canal Street, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - L Holsen
- Departments of Psychiatry and Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - B Holst
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - A Inui
- Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - J O Jansson
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - H Kirchner
- Medizinische Klinik I, Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein Campus Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - M Korbonits
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - B Laferrère
- New York Obesity Research Center, Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - C W LeRoux
- Diabetes Complications Research Centre, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - M Lopez
- Department of Physiology, Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas, University of Santiago de Compostela (CIMUS)-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IDIS)-CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - S Morin
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - M Nakazato
- Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Kiyotake, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - R Nass
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - D Perez-Tilve
- Department of Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - P T Pfluger
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - T W Schwartz
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Laboratory for Molecular Pharmacology, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - R J Seeley
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - M Sleeman
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Y Sun
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - L Sussel
- Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - J Tong
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - M O Thorner
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - A J van der Lely
- Department of Medicine, Erasmus University MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - J M Zigman
- Departments of Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - M Kojima
- Molecular Genetics, Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan
| | - K Kangawa
- National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
| | - R G Smith
- The Scripps Research Institute, Florida Department of Metabolism & Aging, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - T Horvath
- Program in Integrative Cell Signaling and Neurobiology of Metabolism, Section of Comparative Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - M H Tschöp
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany ; Division of Metabolic Diseases, Department of Medicine, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
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Martínez-García G, Serafín V, Agüí L, Yáñez-Sedeño P, Pingarrón JM. Electrochemical Immunosensor for the Determination of Total Ghrelin Hormone in Saliva. ELECTROANAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201400662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Iwakura H, Kangawa K, Nakao K. The regulation of circulating ghrelin - with recent updates from cell-based assays. Endocr J 2015; 62:107-22. [PMID: 25273611 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej14-0419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin is a stomach-derived orexigenic hormone with a wide range of physiological functions. Elucidation of the regulation of the circulating ghrelin level would lead to a better understanding of appetite control in body energy homeostasis. Earlier studies revealed that circulating ghrelin levels are under the control of both acute and chronic energy status: at the acute scale, ghrelin levels are increased by fasting and decreased by feeding, whereas at the chronic scale, they are high in obese subjects and low in lean subjects. Subsequent studies revealed that nutrients, hormones, or neural activities can influence circulating ghrelin levels in vivo. Recently developed in vitro assay systems for ghrelin secretion can assess whether and how individual factors affect ghrelin secretion from cells. In this review, on the basis of numerous human, animal, and cell-based studies, we summarize current knowledge on the regulation of circulating ghrelin levels and enumerate the factors that influence ghrelin levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Iwakura
- Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Shiimura Y, Ohgusu H, Sato T, Kojima M. Regulation of the Human Ghrelin Promoter Activity by Transcription Factors, NF-κB and Nkx2.2. Int J Endocrinol 2015; 2015:580908. [PMID: 25699080 PMCID: PMC4324914 DOI: 10.1155/2015/580908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the gene expression of ghrelin, a growth hormone releasing and appetite stimulating hormone from stomach, we constructed human ghrelin promoter-reporter vectors and analyzed the promoter activity. The ghrelin promoter activity was high when cultured cells that express ghrelin mRNA endogenously like TT or ECC10 cells were used, indicating that these cells contain factors necessary for full expression of the human ghrelin gene. The human ghrelin promoter contains both positive and negative regulatory regions. A transient decrease of the promoter activity was found when the reporter vector with the -1600 fragment of the human ghrelin promoter was transfected into cultured cells. We then examined the effect of several transcription factors on the ghrelin promoter activity and found that NF-κB suppressed and that Nkx2.2, a homeodomain-containing transcription factor that is important for ghrelin cell development in pancreas, activates the promoter activity. These transcription factors may be possible targets for the control of ghrelin gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Shiimura
- Molecular Genetics, Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Fukuoka 839-0864, Japan
| | - Hideko Ohgusu
- Molecular Genetics, Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Fukuoka 839-0864, Japan
| | - Takahiro Sato
- Molecular Genetics, Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Fukuoka 839-0864, Japan
| | - Masayasu Kojima
- Molecular Genetics, Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Fukuoka 839-0864, Japan
- *Masayasu Kojima:
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Kim Y, Kim S, Kim C, Sato T, Kojima M, Park S. Ghrelin is required for dietary restriction-induced enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis: lessons from ghrelin knockout mice. Endocr J 2015; 62:269-75. [PMID: 25735661 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej14-0436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis occurs in the adult hippocampus and is enhanced by dietary restriction (DR), and neurogenesis enhancement is paralleled by circulating ghrelin level enhancement. We have previously reported that ghrelin modulates adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus. In order to investigate the possible role of ghrelin in DR-induced hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice, ghrelin knockout (GKO) mice and wild-type (WT) mice were maintained for 3 months on DR or ad libitum (AL) diets. Protein levels of ghrelin in the stomach and the hippocampus were increased by DR in WT mice. One day after BrdU administration, the number of BrdU-labeled cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus was decreased in GKO mice maintained on the AL diet. DR failed to alter the proliferation of progenitor cells in both WT and GKO mice. Four weeks after BrdU injection, the number of surviving cells in the dentate gyrus was decreased in AL-fed GKO mice. DR increased survival of newborn cells in WT mice, but not in GKO mice. Levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein in the hippocampus were similar between WT and GKO mice, and were increased by DR both in WT and GKO mice. These results suggest that elevated levels of ghrelin during DR may have an important role in the enhancement of neurogenesis induced by DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumi Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to ROS and Biomedical Science Institute, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
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Zhu J, Zheng C, Chen J, Luo J, Su B, Huang Y, Su W, Li Z, Cui T. Ghrelin protects human umbilical vein endothelial cells against high glucose-induced apoptosis via mTOR/P70S6K signaling pathway. Peptides 2014; 52:23-8. [PMID: 24287118 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2013.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 11/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin exhibits its biological effect through binding to the growth hormone secretagogue 1a receptor (GHS-R1a). Recently, it has been reported that ghrelin has an anti-apoptotic effect in several cell types. However, the molecule mechanisms underlying the anti-apoptotic effect of ghrelin remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the intracellular mechanisms responsible for anti-apoptotic effect of ghrelin on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Treatment of HUVEC with ghrelin inhibited high glucose-induced cell apoptosis. Ghrelin stimulated the rapid phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), P70S6K and S6. The GHS-R1a-specific antagonist [D-Lys3]-GHRP-6 abolished the anti-apoptotic effect and inhibited the activation of mTOR, P70S6K, S6 induced by ghrelin. Pretreatment of cells with specific inhibitor of mTOR blocked the anti-apoptotic effect of ghrelin. In addition, ghrelin protected HUVECs against high glucose induced apoptosis by increasing Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Taken together, our results demonstrate that ghrelin produces a protective effect on HUVECs through activating GHS-R1a and mTOR/P70S6K signaling pathway mediates the effect of ghrelin. These observations suggest that ghrelin may act as a survival factor in preventing HUVECs apoptosis caused by high glucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhua Zhu
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Chenghong Zheng
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Endocrinology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Jie Chen
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Bintao Su
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Yan Huang
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wen Su
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Zixi Li
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Tianpen Cui
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, Wuhan No. 1 Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
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Li E, Kim Y, Kim S, Sato T, Kojima M, Park S. Ghrelin stimulates proliferation, migration and differentiation of neural progenitors from the subventricular zone in the adult mice. Exp Neurol 2014; 252:75-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Gordon M, Thompson Jr. D, McKeever K. Effects of exogenous ghrelin infusion on feed intake and metabolic parameters of energy homeostasis in Standardbred mares. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.3920/cep144002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Six Standardbred mares (age 12±2 years, body weight 502±63 kg; mean ± standard deviation) were given 1.6 µg/kg acylated human ghrelin or vehicle treatment as an intravenous bolus in a randomised, cross-over design to test the hypothesis that exogenous ghrelin infusion would increase feed intake and alter metabolic parameters of energy homeostasis, leptin, glucose, insulin and cortisol. After the horses had initial access to hay cubes for 1.5 h, doses were given and hay cubes were available once again. Leftover feed was weighed 6 times over each of the 24 h testing periods. Blood samples for measurement of active ghrelin, growth hormone, leptin, glucose, insulin and cortisol were taken at time 0 (immediately before infusion) and 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 240, 480, and 720 min post-infusion. Every 10 min, the horses’ behaviour was recorded for eating, drinking, resting, and other behaviours. Ghrelin infusion did not increase (P≯0.05) feed intake in the mares as a group, but did increase feed intake (P<0.04) in horses that had the highest growth hormone response to ghrelin infusion. Plasma concentrations of active ghrelin growth hormone, glucose, insulin and cortisol were all increased (P<0.05) by ghrelin infusion. There was no significant change in plasma leptin concentration due to treatment. Ghrelin infusion did not cause a significant change in the number of eating episodes either 2 h post-treatment or for the 24 h testing period. Regression analysis suggests that the increase in feed intake in horses with the highest growth hormone response to ghrelin infusion may be due to their lower (P<0.05) body condition score and % body fat compared with horses that did not increase feed intake and had lower growth hormone response to ghrelin infusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.E. Gordon
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers – The State University of New Jersey, 84 Lipman Drive, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - D.L. Thompson Jr.
- Department of Animal Sciences, 105 J.B. Francioni Hall, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - K.H. McKeever
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers – The State University of New Jersey, 84 Lipman Drive, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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Blijdorp K, Khajeh L, Ribbers GM, Sneekes EM, Heijenbrok-Kal MH, van den Berg-Emons HJG, van der Lely AJ, van Kooten F, Neggers SJCMM. Diagnostic value of a ghrelin test for the diagnosis of GH deficiency after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Eur J Endocrinol 2013; 169:497-502. [PMID: 24037787 PMCID: PMC3776685 DOI: 10.1530/eje-13-0436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the diagnostic value of a ghrelin test in the diagnosis of GH deficiency (GHD) shortly after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). DESIGN Prospective single-center observational cohort study. METHODS A ghrelin test was assessed after the acute phase of SAH and a GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)-arginine test 6 months post SAH. Primary outcome was the diagnostic value of a ghrelin test compared with the GHRH-arginine test in the diagnosis of GHD. The secondary outcome was to assess the safety of the ghrelin test, including patients' comfort, adverse events, and idiosyncratic reactions. RESULTS Forty-three survivors of SAH were included (15 males, 35%, mean age 56. 6 ± 11.7). Six out of 43 (14%) SAH survivors were diagnosed with GHD by GHRH-arginine test. In GHD subjects, median GH peak during ghrelin test was significantly lower than that of non-GHD subjects (5.4 vs 16.6, P=0.002). Receiver operating characteristics analysis showed an area under the curve of 0.869. A cutoff limit of a GH peak of 15 μg/l corresponded with a sensitivity of 100% and a false-positive rate of 40%. No adverse events or idiosyncratic reactions were observed in subjects undergoing a ghrelin test, except for one subject who reported flushing shortly after ghrelin infusion. CONCLUSION Owing to its convenience, validity, and safety, the ghrelin test might be a valuable GH provocative test, especially in the early phase of SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Blijdorp
- Department of Medicine – EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - L Khajeh
- Department of NeurologyErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
- (Correspondence should be addressed to L Khajeh; )
| | - G M Ribbers
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
- Rijndam Rehabilitation CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - E M Sneekes
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - M H Heijenbrok-Kal
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
- Rijndam Rehabilitation CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - H J G van den Berg-Emons
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - A J van der Lely
- Department of Medicine – EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - F van Kooten
- Department of NeurologyErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - S J C M M Neggers
- Department of Medicine – EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical Center RotterdamPO Box 20403000 CA, RotterdamThe Netherlands
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Garin MC, Burns CM, Kaul S, Cappola AR. Clinical review: The human experience with ghrelin administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98:1826-37. [PMID: 23533240 PMCID: PMC3644599 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2012-4247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Ghrelin is an endogenous stimulator of GH and is implicated in a number of physiological processes. Clinical trials have been performed in a variety of patient populations, but there is no comprehensive review of the beneficial and adverse consequences of ghrelin administration to humans. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION PubMed was utilized, and the reference list of each article was screened. We included 121 published articles in which ghrelin was administered to humans. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Ghrelin has been administered as an infusion or a bolus in a variety of doses to 1850 study participants, including healthy participants and patients with obesity, prior gastrectomy, cancer, pituitary disease, diabetes mellitus, eating disorders, and other conditions. There is strong evidence that ghrelin stimulates appetite and increases circulating GH, ACTH, cortisol, prolactin, and glucose across varied patient populations. There is a paucity of evidence regarding the effects of ghrelin on LH, FSH, TSH, insulin, lipolysis, body composition, cardiac function, pulmonary function, the vasculature, and sleep. Adverse effects occurred in 20% of participants, with a predominance of flushing and gastric rumbles and a mild degree of severity. The few serious adverse events occurred in patients with advanced illness and were not clearly attributable to ghrelin. Route of administration may affect the pattern of adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS Existing literature supports the short-term safety of ghrelin administration and its efficacy as an appetite stimulant in diverse patient populations. There is some evidence to suggest that ghrelin has wider ranging therapeutic effects, although these areas require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret C Garin
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-5160, USA
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Kenny R, Cai G, Bayliss JA, Clarke M, Choo YL, Miller AA, Andrews ZB, Spencer SJ. Endogenous ghrelin's role in hippocampal neuroprotection after global cerebral ischemia: does endogenous ghrelin protect against global stroke? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2013; 304:R980-90. [PMID: 23576609 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00594.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a gastrointestinal hormone with a well-characterized role in feeding and metabolism. Recent evidence suggests that ghrelin may also be neuroprotective after injury in animal models of cerebral ischemia. Thus exogenous ghrelin treatment can improve cell survival, reduce infarct size, and rescue memory deficits in focal ischemia models, doing so by suppressing inflammation and apoptosis. Endogenous ghrelin plays a key a role in a number of physiological processes, including feeding, metabolism, stress, and anxiety. However, no study has examined whether endogenous ghrelin also contributes to neuroprotection after cerebral ischemia. Here, we aimed to determine whether endogenous ghrelin normally protects against neuronal cell death and cognitive impairments after global cerebral ischemia and whether such changes are linked with inflammation or apoptosis. We used a two-vessel occlusion (2VO) model of global cerebral ischemia in wild-type (wt) and ghrelin knockout (ghr-/-) C57/Bl6J mice. ghr-/- mice had improved cell survival in the Cornu Ammonis(CA)-2/3 region of the hippocampus-a region of significant growth hormone secretagogue receptor expression. They also displayed less cellular degeneration than wt mice after the 2VO (Fluoro-Jade) and had less cognitive impairment in the novel object-recognition test. These outcomes were despite evidence of more neuroinflammation and apoptosis in the ghr-/- and less of a postsurgery hypothermia. Finally, we found that mortality in the week following the 2VO was reduced more in ghr-/- mice than in wt. Overall, these experiments point to a neurodegenerative but antiapoptotic effect of endogenous ghrelin in this model of global ischemia, highlighting that further research is essential before we can apply ghrelin treatments to neurodegenerative insults in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Kenny
- School of Health Sciences and Health Innovations Research Institute, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Miandare HK, Farahmand H, Akbarzadeh A, Ramezanpour S, Kaiya H, Miyazato M, Rytkönen KT, Nikinmaa M. Developmental transcription of genes putatively associated with growth in two sturgeon species of different growth rate. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2013; 182:41-7. [PMID: 23229003 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2012.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 10/13/2012] [Accepted: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we surveyed developmental changes in the transcription of growth hormone (gh), insulin-like growth factor-I (igf-I), ghrelin (ghrl) and vascular endothelial growth factor (vegf) genes in the largest freshwater fish, European sturgeon (Beluga, Huso huso) and compared the same parameters to that of its phylogenically close moderate-sized species, Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus). The transcripts of gh, igf-I, ghrl and vegf were detected at all developmental time-points of Persian sturgeon and Beluga from embryos to juvenile fish. Changes in normalized gh, igf-I, ghrl and vegf transcription by using the geometric average of genes encoding ribosomal protein L6 (RPL6) and elongation factor (EF1A) over the time of development of Persian sturgeon and Beluga were statistically significant (P<0.05). Our results showed that the mRNA expression levels of both igf-I and ghrl were low during early larval development and then increased significantly to the late larval time-points when larvae started exogenous feeding. In both Beluga and Persian sturgeon, after a low mRNA expression during the embryonic stage, the transcript levels of vegf displayed an increasing trend during yolk-sac fry, consistent with organogenesis. The vegf level remained constantly high in the time of exogenous feeding. The highest detection of gh transcripts coincided with the end of the embryonic stage (hatching time) in Persian sturgeon and 3 days-post-hatching (dph) in Beluga. In Persian sturgeon, the gh transcript started to decrease to the rest of the developmental time-points, whereas in Beluga gh transcript had a marked second increase from the time of exogenous feeding (20-dph). This Beluga specific increase in gh transcription may be associated with the marked growth rate and extraordinary size of this fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Kolangi Miandare
- Department of Fisheries, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan 49138-15739, Iran.
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Méquinion M, Langlet F, Zgheib S, Dickson S, Dehouck B, Chauveau C, Viltart O. Ghrelin: central and peripheral implications in anorexia nervosa. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2013; 4:15. [PMID: 23549309 PMCID: PMC3581855 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing clinical and therapeutic interest in the neurobiology of eating disorders reflects their dramatic impact on health. Chronic food restriction resulting in severe weight loss is a major symptom described in restrictive anorexia nervosa (AN) patients, and they also suffer from metabolic disturbances, infertility, osteopenia, and osteoporosis. Restrictive AN, mostly observed in young women, is the third largest cause of chronic illness in teenagers of industrialized countries. From a neurobiological perspective, AN-linked behaviors can be considered an adaptation that permits the endurance of reduced energy supply, involving central and/or peripheral reprograming. The severe weight loss observed in AN patients is accompanied by significant changes in hormones involved in energy balance, feeding behavior, and bone formation, all of which can be replicated in animals models. Increasing evidence suggests that AN could be an addictive behavior disorder, potentially linking defects in the reward mechanism with suppressed food intake, heightened physical activity, and mood disorder. Surprisingly, the plasma levels of ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone that drives food-motivated behavior, are increased. This increase in plasma ghrelin levels seems paradoxical in light of the restrained eating adopted by AN patients, and may rather result from an adaptation to the disease. The aim of this review is to describe the role played by ghrelin in AN focusing on its central vs. peripheral actions. In AN patients and in rodent AN models, chronic food restriction induces profound alterations in the « ghrelin » signaling that leads to the development of inappropriate behaviors like hyperactivity or addiction to food starvation and therefore a greater depletion in energy reserves. The question of a transient insensitivity to ghrelin and/or a potential metabolic reprograming is discussed in regard of new clinical treatments currently investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Méquinion
- UMR INSERM 837, Development and Plasticity of Postnatal BrainLille, France
| | - Fanny Langlet
- UMR INSERM 837, Development and Plasticity of Postnatal BrainLille, France
| | - Sara Zgheib
- Pathophysiology of inflammatory of bone diseases, Université Lille Nord de France-ULCO – Lille 2Boulogne sur Mer, France
| | - Suzanne Dickson
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Bénédicte Dehouck
- UMR INSERM 837, Development and Plasticity of Postnatal BrainLille, France
- Université Lille Nord de France – Université d’ArtoisLiévin, France
| | - Christophe Chauveau
- Pathophysiology of inflammatory of bone diseases, Université Lille Nord de France-ULCO – Lille 2Boulogne sur Mer, France
| | - Odile Viltart
- UMR INSERM 837, Development and Plasticity of Postnatal BrainLille, France
- Université Lille Nord de France-USTL (Lille 1)Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
- *Correspondence: Odile Viltart, Development and Plasticity of the Postnatal Brain, Team 2, Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center, UMR INSERM 837, Bât Biserte, 1 place de Verdun, 59,045 Lille cedex, France. e-mail:
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Li E, Kim Y, Kim S, Park S. Ghrelin-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and enhancement of cognitive function are mediated independently of GH/IGF-1 axis: lessons from the spontaneous dwarf rats. Endocr J 2013; 60:1065-75. [PMID: 23774069 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej13-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently have reported that ghrelin modulates adult hippocampal neurogenesis. However, there is a possibility that the action of ghrelin on hippocampal neurogenesis could be, in part, due to the ability of ghrelin to stimulate the GH/insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 axis, where both GH and IGF-1 infusions are known to increase hippocampal neurogenesis. To explore this possibility, we assessed the impact of ghrelin on progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation in the dentate gyrus (DG) of spontaneous dwarf rats (SDRs), a dwarf strain with a mutation of the GH gene resulting in total loss of GH. Double immunohistochemical staining revealed that Ki-67-positive progenitor cells and doublecortin (DCX)-positive neuroblasts in the DG of the SDRs expressed ghrelin receptors. We found that ghrelin treatment in the SDRs significantly increased the number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen- and BrdU-labeled cells in the DG. The number of DCX-labeled cells in the DG of ghrelin-treated SDRs was also significantly increased compared with the vehicle-treated controls. To test whether ghrelin has a direct effect on cognitive performance independently of somatotropic axis, hippocampus-dependent learning and memory were assessed using the Y-maze and novel object recognition (NOR) test in the SDRs. Ghrelin treatment for 4 weeks by subcutaneous osmotic pump significantly increased alternation rates in the Y-maze and exploration time for novel object in the NOR test compared to vehicle-treated controls. Our results indicate that ghrelin-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and enhancement of cognitive function are mediated independently of somatotropic axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endan Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to ROS and Biomedical Science Institute, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
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Yang W, Wang J, Zhu X, Gao Y, Liu Z, Zhang L, Chen H, Shi X, Yang L, Liu G. High lever dietary copper promote ghrelin gene expression in the fundic gland of growing pigs. Biol Trace Elem Res 2012; 150:154-7. [PMID: 22911428 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-012-9477-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This experiment was conducted to examine the effect of dietary copper supplementation on ghrelin mRNA expression level in the fundic gland of growing pigs. A total of 45 crossbred pigs were randomly assigned to three groups of 15 pigs, five replicates of three animals comprised each group. Pigs were allocated to diets that contained 5 mg/kg copper (as the control group), 125 mg/kg copper sulfate, or 125 mg/kg copper methionine. At the end of the experiment, five pigs were selected at random from each group, slaughtered, and collected the fundic gland for determination of ghrelin mRNA expression level. The results showed that average daily gain, average daily feed intake, absolute weight, serum growth hormone (GH) concentration, and ghrelin mRNA level were higher in pigs fed the diets with 125 mg/kg copper methionine and 125 mg/kg copper sulfate (P < 0.05), than in pigs fed a diet with 5 mg/kg copper. These data suggest that high dietary copper (125 mg/kg) appears to increase feed intake and promote weight gain by enhancing the secretion of GH and ghrelin mRNA level in growing pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
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Akamizu T, Kangawa K. The physiological significance and potential clinical applications of ghrelin. Eur J Intern Med 2012; 23:197-202. [PMID: 22385874 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Revised: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin, a natural ligand for the growth hormone (GH)-secretagogue receptor (GHS-R), is now known to play a role in a number of different physiological processes. For example, ghrelin increases GH secretion, feeding, and body weight when administered centrally or peripherally. These unique effects of ghrelin should be invaluable for the development of novel treatments and disease diagnostic techniques. Clinical trials have already been performed to assess the utility of ghrelin for the treatment of several disorders including anorexia, cachexia, and GH-related disorders. This review summarizes the recent advances in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Akamizu
- Ghrelin Research Project, Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto University School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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Lee S, Kim Y, Li E, Park S. Ghrelin protects spinal cord motoneurons against chronic glutamate excitotoxicity by inhibiting microglial activation. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2012; 16:43-8. [PMID: 22416219 PMCID: PMC3298825 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2012.16.1.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 01/01/2012] [Accepted: 01/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate excitotoxicity is emerging as a contributor to degeneration of spinal cord motoneurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Recently, we have reported that ghrelin protects motoneurons against chronic glutamate excitotoxicity through the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3β pathways. Previous studies suggest that activated microglia actively participate in the pathogenesis of ALS motoneuron degeneration. However, it is still unknown whether ghrelin exerts its protective effect on motoneurons via inhibition of microglial activation. In this study, we investigate organotypic spinal cord cultures (OSCCs) exposed to threohydroxyaspartate (THA), as a model of excitotoxic motoneuron degeneration, to determine if ghrelin prevents microglial activation. Exposure of OSCCs to THA for 3 weeks produced typical motoneuron death, and treatment of ghrelin significantly attenuated THA-induced motoneuron loss, as previously reported. Ghrelin prevented THA-induced microglial activation in the spinal cord and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β. Our data indicate that ghrelin may act as a survival factor for motoneurons by functioning as a microglia-deactivating factor and suggest that ghrelin may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of ALS and other neurodegenerative disorders where inflammatory responses play a critical role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungyoub Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to ROS and Biomedical Science Institute, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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Goto M, Inoue K, Tanaka T, Kaneko Y, Goto A, Imai K, Ihana N, Tsujimoto T, Kosuga Y, Seki Y, Kasama K, Yasuda K, Kishimoto M, Takahashi Y, Kajio H, Noda M. A morbid obese Japanese woman with a body mass index of 83.2 kg/m2: before and after sleeve gastrectomy. Intern Med 2012; 51:969-75. [PMID: 22504261 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.51.7010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A 34-year-old Japanese woman presented at our institution weighing 182.7 kg, 148.2 cm tall, and with a body mass index of 83.2 kg/m(2). She had been overweight since childhood, but no abnormality was found to explain her obesity. Treatments, including mazindol, bofu-tsusho-san, dietary restriction, and BioEnterics Intragastric Balloon, did not result in improvement of her obesity. Finally, we performed sleeve gastrectomy, and she has maintained her weight within 130-140 kg without rebounding for 2 and a half years. We followed the clinical changes before and after the operation. This case provides potentially interesting information regarding operative treatment for morbid obesity in Japanese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Goto
- Department of Diabetes and Metabolic Medicine, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Japan
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Sato T, Nakamura Y, Shiimura Y, Ohgusu H, Kangawa K, Kojima M. Structure, regulation and function of ghrelin. J Biochem 2011; 151:119-28. [PMID: 22041973 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvr134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin is a stomach hormone that acts as an endogenous ligand of orphan G-protein-coupled receptor. Ghrelin is a 28-amino acid peptide existing in two major forms: n-octanoyl-modified ghrelin, which possesses an n-octanoyl modification on serine-3 and des-acyl ghrelin. Fatty acid modification of ghrelin is essential for ghrelin-induced growth hormone release from the pituitary and appetite stimulation. This acyl-modification of ghrelin is catalysed by ghrelin-O-acyl transferase recently identified. Despite the number of innovative advancements in this field of research, there are still many aspects of ghrelin function and biosynthesis process that remain to be clarified. Here, we review the current understanding of the structure, regulation and function of ghrelin; this review is intended for researchers who will be involved in this field in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Sato
- Institute of Life Science, Kurume University, Kurume 839-0864, Japan.
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