Evaluation of three-dimensional ultrasonography of the bovine mammary gland

Diagnostic utility of ultrasonography for thoracic and abdominal bacterial and parasitic diseases in ruminants: a comprehensive overview

This review article describes the roles of ultrasound in assessing thoracic and abdominal infectious diseases, mainly bacterial and parasitic ones that affect farm animals, including cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. Ultrasonography is a non-invasive imaging technique used to diagnose infectious diseases affecting the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and hepatobiliary systems. In cases of thoracic and abdominal infections, ultrasound typically reveals abnormalities in echogenicity and echotexture, the presence of unusual artifacts, and mass formation exerting pressure on surrounding structures. Inflammatory and degenerative changes within the viscera can be identified ultrasonographically by comparing the echogenicity of affected areas with that of the surrounding normal parenchyma, such as in fascioliasis. Bacterial and parasitic infections often result in capsular mass lesions with anechoic contents, as observed in hydatid cysts and cysticercosis, or varying echogenic contents, as observed in liver abscesses. Effusions within the pericardium, pleura, and peritoneum are common ultrasonographic findings in infectious thoracic and abdominal diseases. However, these effusions' echogenicity does not always allow for clear differentiation between transudates and exudates. The routine use of ultrasonography in the evaluation of the chest and abdomen in affected or suspected ruminants is highly beneficial for detection, guiding therapeutic decisions, assessing prognosis, and aiding in the eradication of highly contagious diseases that cause significant economic losses.

Udder Ultrasonography of Dairy Cows: Investigating the Relationship between Echotexture, Blood Flow, Somatic Cell Count and Milk Yield during Dry Period and Lactation

Udder health of dairy cows is related to their productivity and welfare. The period from dry-off to calving and early lactation is crucial. Ultrasonography is a useful and practical tool for the examination of the mammary parenchyma and blood flow. This observational study investigated the relationship between udder echotexture features, blood flow volume (BFVol) in the milk vein, milk somatic cell count (SCC) and daily milk yield (DMY) from late lactation, throughout the dry period and consecutive early lactation. Seventeen repeated measurements were performed on twenty-one Holstein cows. The udder parenchyma was examined with B-mode ultrasonography. Udder echotexture was studied using 15 features: Numerical Pixel Value (NPV), Pixel Standard Deviation (PSD), Skewness, Excess, Contrast, Homogeneity, Correlation, Entropy, Run Percentage, Long-Run Emphasis, Grey Value Distribution, Runlength Distribution, Gradient Mean Value, Gradient Variance and Percentage of Non-zero Gradients. Blood flow in the milk vein was examined with spectral Doppler. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to investigate relationships between BFVol, udder echotexture features, SCC and DMY throughout the study period. Our models showed that a 1 kg increase in DMY was associated with a significant increase of 0.25 L/min in the expected BFVol and that a 1,000,000-cells/mL increase in SCC was associated with a significant BFVol decrease of 0.49 L/min, keeping all other variables constant. Multivariable models showed significant associations between DMY and NPV, between PSD and Long-Run Emphasis, and between SCC and NPV, PSD, Gradient Mean Value, Homogeneity, Gradient Variance and Entropy. In conclusion, udder echotexture and BFVol in the milk vein are related to SCC and milk yield. Ultrasonography can be used for the comprehensive assessment of udder health in support of precision dairy farming.

Modern Imaging Techniques in the Study and Disease Diagnosis of the Mammary Glands of Animals

The study of the structure and function of the animals' mammary glands is of key importance, as it reveals pathological processes at their onset, thus contributing to their immediate treatment. The most frequently studied mammary diseases are mastitis in cows and ewes and mammary tumours in dogs and cats. Various imaging techniques such as computed tomography, positron emission tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasonographic techniques (Doppler, contrast-enchanced, three-dimensional and elastography) are available and can be applied in research or clinical practice in order to evaluate possible abnormalities in mammary glands, as well as to assist in the differential diagnosis. In this review, the above imaging technologies are described, and the perspectives of each method are highlighted. It is inferred that ultrasonographic modalities are the most frequently used imaging techniques for the diagnosis of clinical or subclinical mastitis and treatment guidance on a farm. In companion animals, a combination of imaging techniques should be applied for a more accurate diagnosis of mammary tumours. In any case, the confirmation of the diagnosis is provided by laboratory techniques.

Ultrasonographic assessment of the feline mammary gland

The aim of this study is to characterise the feline mammary echotexture using B-mode ultrasonography, which is not routinely used to examine the feline mammary gland. Using a 5-9 MHz linear transducer the ultrasonographic appearance of non-stimulated and stimulated mammary glands was determined in 35 mature intact non-pregnant, pregnant and lactating queens aged from 16 months to 8 years. In intact non-pregnant queens, mammary glands are fairly underdeveloped and on the ultrasonograms they appear with a regular hypoechoic texture and generally show a thickness of less than 2.0mm. The stimulated mammary tissue typically presents a more hyperechoic appearance compared to the non-stimulated gland and a fine granular echotexture. Maximum echogenicity of the mammary gland is reached during lactation. In late pregnancy, the mammary glands reach 6-9 mm in thickness. During lactation, the size of the glands depends on the existence of a suckling stimulus, with the suckled glands reaching about 11 mm in thickness. Ductal structures can only be imaged during late pregnancy and lactation. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the feline mammary gland can become a valuable diagnostic tool to characterise physiological changes and may further contribute to a better characterisation of diseased mammary tissue.