Epithelial-mesenchymal transition - activating transcription factors - multifunctional regulators in cancer

Reciprocal Modulation of Tumour and Immune Cell Motility: Uncovering Dynamic Interplays and Therapeutic Approaches

Dysregulated cell movement is a hallmark of cancer progression and metastasis, the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. The metastatic cascade involves tumour cell migration, invasion, intravasation, dissemination, and colonisation of distant organs. These processes are influenced by reciprocal interactions between cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment (TME), including immune cells, stromal components, and extracellular matrix proteins. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays a crucial role in providing cancer cells with invasive and stem-like properties, promoting dissemination and resistance to apoptosis. Conversely, the mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) facilitates metastatic colonisation and tumour re-initiation. Immune cells within the TME contribute to either anti-tumour response or immune evasion. These cells secrete cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors that shape the immune landscape and influence responses to immunotherapy. Notably, immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has transformed cancer treatment, yet its efficacy is often dictated by the immune composition of the tumour site. Elucidating the molecular cross-talk between immune and cancer cells, identifying predictive biomarkers for ICB response, and developing strategies to convert cold tumours into immune-active environments is critical to overcoming resistance to immunotherapy and improving patient survival.

Hepatic Undifferentiated Carcinoma With Osteoclast Like Giant Cell With Dominant Intraductal Growth: A Case Report With Literature Review

Undifferentiated carcinoma with osteoclast-like giant cells is extremely rare in the liver. Here, we report a tumor with dominant intraductal growth. The unique growth pattern has never been reported before. A 73-year-old female patient presented intermittent right upper quadrant abdominal pain accompanied by fever and general weakness for 1 month. Imaging study revealed an intraductal lesion in the dilated large bile duct. Histologically, the tumor showed predominantly undifferentiated carcinoma with osteoclast-like giant cells, associated with high-grade biliary intraepithelial neoplasia and minor foci of adenocarcinoma. A KRAS codon 61 mutation was detected, supporting the epithelial origin of undifferentiated carcinoma with osteoclast-like giant cells. This tumor not only adds to the limited documented instances of undifferentiated carcinoma with osteoclast-like giant cells in the liver but also demonstrates that the development of an undifferentiated component might occur in a low stage tumor, which is typically considered a late stage in tumor progression.

DNA Tetrahedron Mass-Tagged Probe Set for the Programmed Detection of Protein Trimers by Point-to-Point Recognition and Induced Self-Assembly in Living Cells

Multimeric proteins normally perform different biological functions from their monomer components. Thus, precise recognition and quantitative detection of multimeric proteins can benefit a better understanding of complex biological processes and their roles in disease diagnosis and treatment. The challenge herein is to distinguish the multimeric proteins containing identical monomer components and recognize all the monomers in a multimeric protein on spatial scales. This situation is likely to become more significant for homomultimeric proteins. In this study, a DNA polyhedron mass-tagged probe set strategy was developed for the programmed detection of multimeric proteins in living cells. The probe set comprised recognition and displacement probes, a DNA polyhedron probe, and a mass-tagged probe. After point-to-point recognition of each monomer in the target protein complex by recognition and displacement probes, the DNA polyhedron probe could integrate the information on all the protein monomers by carrying out induced self-assembly via a cascaded toehold-mediated strand-displacement (TMSD) reaction. Afterward, the mass-tagged probe collected the integrated information, and the mass tag in the probe was released by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and detected by mass spectrometry (MS). Using the tmTNF-α homotrimer as an example, its expression levels in different breast cancer cell lines were ultimately determined using this probe set containing a DNA tetrahedron probe. This study is among the first to quantitatively detect multimeric proteins in living cells. Using a similar strategy, more DNA polyhedron mass-tagged probe sets can be developed for the detection of higher-order multimeric proteins.

Peroxidasin is associated with a mesenchymal-like transcriptional phenotype and promotes invasion in metastatic melanoma

Cutaneous melanoma is a highly invasive, heterogeneous and treatment resistant cancer. It's ability to dynamically shift between transcriptional states or phenotypes results in an adaptive cell plasticity that may drive cancer cell invasion or the development of therapy resistance. The expression of peroxidasin (PXDN), an extracellular matrix peroxidase, has been proposed to be associated with the invasive metastatic melanoma phenotype. We have confirmed this association by analysing the transcriptomes of 70 metastatic melanoma cell lines with variable levels of PXDN expression. This analysis highlighted a strong association between high PXDN expression and the undifferentiated invasive melanoma phenotype. To assess the functional role of PXDN in melanoma invasion, we performed a knockout of PXDN in a highly invasive cell line (NZM40). PXDN knockout decreased the invasive potential by ∼50 % and decreased the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasive marker genes as determined by RNAseq and substantiated by proteomics analysis. Bioinformatics analysis of differentially expressed genes following PXDN knockout highlighted decreases in genes linked to extracellular matrix formation, organization and degradation as well as signalling pathways such as the WNT pathway. This study provides compelling evidence that PXDN plays a functional role in melanoma invasion by promoting an invasive, mesenchymal-like transcriptional phenotype.

Schwann cells in regeneration and cancer: an epithelial-mesenchymal transition perspective

In the peripheral nervous system, glial cells, known as Schwann cells (SCs), are responsible for supporting and maintaining nerves. One of the most important characteristics of SCs is their remarkable plasticity. In various injury contexts, SCs undergo a reprogramming process that generates specialized cells to promote tissue regeneration and repair. However, in pathological conditions, this same plasticity and regenerative potential can be hijacked. Different studies highlight the activation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a driver of SC phenotypic plasticity. Although SCs are not epithelial, their neural crest origin makes EMT activation crucial for their ability to adopt repair phenotypes, mirroring the plasticity observed during development. These adaptive processes are essential for regeneration. However, EMT activation in SCs-derived tumours enhances cancer progression and aggressiveness. Furthermore, in the tumour microenvironment (TME), SCs also acquire activated phenotypes that contribute to tumour migration and invasion by activating EMT in cancer cells. In this review, we will discuss how EMT impacts SC plasticity and function from development and tissue regeneration to pathological conditions, such as cancer.

MYG1 interacts with HSP90 to promote breast cancer progression through Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

As an evolutionarily conserved gene involved in embryonic development, cell differentiation, and immune metabolism, MYG1 exhibits a dynamic expression pattern related to development in human and mouse embryonic tissues, especially upregulates in undifferentiated or pluripotent stem cells. However, MYG1 has been poorly studied in breast cancer and its functional mechanism still remains unclear.

METHOD

Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were used to study MYG1 expression and localization in breast cancer. Lentivirus transfection combined with CCK8, colony formation, matrix gel experiment and breast fat pad tumor formation in nude mice were used for in vivo and in vitro functional assessment. GSEA enrichment analysis, immunofluorescence and Western blot were conducted to explore functional mechanism.

RESULT

MYG1 expression was upregulated in breast cancer and its higher expression correlated with a variety of clinicopathological characteristics indicating poor prognosis. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that overexpression of MYG1 promoted breast cancer cells proliferation, migration, invasion and tumorigenesis, while downregulation of MYG1 had an opposite effect. Mechanistically, MYG1 interacted with HSP90 to significantly activate Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways in breast cancer cells, thus promoting EMT, cell cycle process and breast cancer progression.

CONCLUSION

MYG1 is highly expressed in breast cancer and functions as an oncogene. Mechanistically, MYG1 interacts with HSP90 to accelerate EMT and cell cycle process by activating both Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways.

Non-small cell lung cancer map and analysis: exploring interconnected oncogenic signal integrators

Non-Small Cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is known for its fast progression, metastatic potency, and a leading cause of mortality globally. At diagnosis, approximately 30-40% of NSCLC patients already present with metastasis. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a developmental program implicated in cancer progression and metastasis. Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGFβ) and its signalling plays a prominent role in orchestrating the process of EMT and cancer metastasis. In present study, a comprehensive molecular interaction map of TGFβ induced EMT in NSCLC was developed through an extensive literature survey. The map encompasses 394 species interconnected through 554 reactions, representing the relationship and complex interplay between TGFβ induced SMAD dependent and independent signalling pathways (PI3K/Akt, Wnt, EGFR, JAK/STAT, p38 MAPK, NOTCH, Hypoxia). The map, built using Cell Designer and compliant with SBGN and SBML standards, was subsequently translated into a logical modelling framework using CaSQ and dynamically analysed with Cell Collective. These analyses illustrated the complex regulatory dynamics, capturing the known experimental outcomes of TGFβ induced EMT in NSCLC including the co-existence of hybrid EM phenotype during transition. Hybrid EM phenotype is known to contribute for the phenotypic plasticity during metastasis. Network-based analysis identified the crucial network level properties and hub regulators, while the transcriptome-based analysis cross validated the prognostic significance and clinical relevance of key regulators. Overall, the map developed and the subsequent analyses offer deeper understanding of the complex regulatory network governing the process of EMT in NSCLC.

Immunological roles for resistin and related adipokines in obesity-associated tumors

Rationale Obesity is an independent risk factor for the occurrence and development of tumors. Obesity is influenced by signaling of adipokines, which are secreted factors from adipocytes and resident immune cells within adipose tissues that mediate lipid metabolism. More recently, adipokines have been implicated in chronic inflammation as well as in tumor formation and growth. Among them, resistin has received increasing attention in research related to the growth and expansion of solid tumors and hematological cancers through various signaling pathways. Objective and findings We reviewed the physiological, biochemical, and immune functions of adipose tissue, with a focus on the structure and expression of resistin and adipokines within multiple adipose cell types, their signaling pathways and putative effects on tumor cells, as well as their in vivo regulation. Current evidence indicates that adipokines such as resistin act as pro-inflammatory factors to stimulate immune cells which, in turn, promotes tumor angiogenesis, connective tissue proliferation, and matrix fibrosis. Concurrently, in states of metabolic dysfunction and lipotoxicity in obese individuals, the numbers and functions of immune cells are compromised, leading to an immunosuppressive environment that fosters tumor cell survival and weak cancer immune monitoring. Conclusion Adipokines such as resistin are important to the development of obesity-related tumors. Clarifying the roles for obesity-related factors in immune regulation and tumor progression may lead to the discovery of novel anti-tumor strategies for targeting obesity factors such as resistin to limit tumor growth and manage obesity, or both.

Hippo pathway effectors YAP, TAZ and TEAD are associated with EMT master regulators ZEB, Snail and with aggressive phenotype in phyllodes breast tumors

BACKGROUND

Phyllodes tumors (PTs) of the breast are uncommon fibroepithelial neoplasms that tend to recur locally and may have metastatic potential. Their pathogenesis is poorly understood. Hippo signaling pathway plays an essential role in organ size control, tumor suppression, tissue regeneration and stem cell self-renewal. Hippo signaling dysfunction has been implicated in cancer. Recent evidence suggests that there is cross-talk between the Hippo signaling key proteins YAP/TAZ and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) master regulators Snail and ZEB. In this study we aimed to investigate the expression of Hippo signaling pathway components and EMT regulators in PTs, in relation to tumor grade.

METHODS

Expression of Hippo signaling effector proteins YAP, TAZ and their DNA binding partner TEAD was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in paraffin-embedded tissue specimens from 86 human phyllodes breast tumors (45 benign, 21 borderline, 20 malignant), in comparison with tumor grade and with the expression of EMT-related transcription factors ZEB and Snail.

RESULTS

Nuclear immunopositivity for YAP, TAZ and TEAD was detected in both stromal and epithelial cells in PTs and was significantly higher in high grade tumors. Interestingly, there was a significant correlation between the expression of YAP, TAZ, TEAD and the expression of ZEB and SNAIL.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results originally implicate Hippo signaling pathway in PTs pathogenesis and suggest that an interaction between Hippo signaling key components and EMT regulators may promote the malignant features of PTs.

Targeting drug resistance in glioblastoma (Review)

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignancy of the central nervous system in adults. The current standard of care includes surgery, radiation therapy, temozolomide; and tumor‑treating fields leads to dismal overall survival. There are far limited treatments upon recurrence. Therapies to date are ineffective as a result of several factors, including the presence of the blood‑brain barrier, blood tumor barrier, glioma stem‑like cells and genetic heterogeneity in GBM. In the present review, the potential mechanisms that lead to treatment resistance in GBM and the measures which have been taken so far to attempt to overcome the resistance were discussed. The complex biology of GBM and lack of comprehensive understanding of the development of therapeutic resistance in GBM demands discovery of novel antigens that are targetable and provide effective therapeutic strategies.

Biosensors for metastatic cancer cell detection

Early detection and effective cancer treatment are critical to improving metastatic cancer cell diagnosis and management today. In particular, accurate qualitative diagnosis of metastatic cancer cell represents an important step in the diagnosis of cancer. Today, biosensors have been widely developed due to the daily need to measure different chemical and biological species. Biosensors are utilized to quantify chemical and biological phenomena by generating signals that are directly proportional to the quantity of the analyte present in the reaction. Biosensors are widely used in disease control, drug delivery, infection detection, detection of pathogenic microorganisms, and markers that indicate a specific disease in the body. These devices have been especially popular in the field of metastatic cancer cell diagnosis and treatment due to their portability, high sensitivity, high specificity, ease of use and short response time. This article examines biosensors for metastatic cancer cells. It also studies metastatic cancer cells and the mechanism of metastasis. Finally, the function of biosensors and biomarkers in metastatic cancer cells is investigated.

Preclinical evidence using synthetic compounds and natural products indicates that AMPK represents a potential pharmacological target for the therapy of pulmonary diseases

Adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a highly conserved eukaryotic enzyme discovered as a key regulator of cellular energy homeostasis, with anti-inflammation, antioxidative stress, anticancer, and antifibrosis beneficial effects. AMPK is dysregulated in human pulmonary diseases such as acute lung injury, nonsmall cell lung cancer, pulmonary fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma. This review provides an overview of the beneficial role of natural, synthetic, and Chinese traditional medicines AMPK modulators in pulmonary diseases, and highlights the role of the AMPK signaling pathway in the lung, emphasizing the importance of finding lead compounds and drugs that can target and modulate AMPK to treat the lung diseases.

Exploiting transcription factors to target EMT and cancer stem cells for tumor modulation and therapy

Transcription factors (TFs) are essential in controlling gene regulatory networks that determine cellular fate during embryogenesis and tumor development. TFs are the major players in promoting cancer stemness by regulating the function of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Understanding how TFs interact with their downstream targets for determining cell fate during embryogenesis and tumor development is a critical area of research. CSCs are increasingly recognized for their significance in tumorigenesis and patient prognosis, as they play a significant role in cancer initiation, progression, metastasis, and treatment resistance. However, traditional therapies have limited effectiveness in eliminating this subset of cells, allowing CSCs to persist and potentially form secondary tumors. Recent studies have revealed that cancer cells and tumors with CSC-like features also exhibit genes related to the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT-associated transcription factors (EMT-TFs) like TWIST and Snail/Slug can upregulate EMT-related genes and reprogram cancer cells into a stem-like phenotype. Importantly, the regulation of EMT-TFs, particularly through post-translational modifications (PTMs), plays a significant role in cancer metastasis and the acquisition of stem cell-like features. PTMs, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and SUMOylation, can alter the stability, localization, and activity of EMT-TFs, thereby modulating their ability to drive EMT and stemness properties in cancer cells. Although targeting EMT-TFs holds potential in tackling CSCs, current pharmacological approaches to do so directly are unavailable. Therefore, this review aims to explore the role of EMT- and CSC-TFs, their connection and impact in cellular development and cancer, emphasizing the potential of TF networks as targets for therapeutic intervention.

Resveratrol is an inhibitory polyphenol of epithelial-mesenchymal transition induced by Fusobacterium nucleatum

OBJECTIVE

Resveratrol is a natural phytoalexin that has anti-inflammatory properties, reverses doxorubicin resistance, and inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in many types of cancer cells. Fusobacterium nucleatum is reportedly enriched in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) tissues compared to adjacent normal tissues, sparking interest in the relationship between F. nucleatum and OSCC. Recently, F. nucleatum was shown to be associated with EMT in OSCC. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of the natural plant compound resveratrol on F. nucleatum-induced EMT in OSCC.

DESIGN

F. nucleatum was co-cultured with OSCC cells, with a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 300:1. Resveratrol was used at a concentration of 10 μM. Cell Counting Kit-8 and wound healing assays were performed to examine the viability and migratory ability of OSCC cells. Subsequently, real-time RT-PCR was performed to investigate the gene expression of EMT-related markers. Western blotting and immunofluorescence analyses were used to further analyze the expression of the epithelial marker E-cadherin and the EMT transcription factor SNAI1.

RESULTS

Co-cultivation with F. nucleatum did not significantly enhance cell viability. The co-cultured cells displayed similarities to the positive control of EMT, exhibiting enhanced migration and expression changes in EMT-related markers. SNAI1 was significantly upregulated, whereas E-cadherin, was significantly downregulated. Notably, resveratrol inhibited F. nucleatum-induced cell migration, decreasing the expression of SNAI1.

CONCLUSIONS

Resveratrol inhibited F. nucleatum-induced EMT by downregulating SNAI1, which may provide a target for OSCC treatment.

NF-κB signaling in neoplastic transition from epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype

NF-κB transcription factors are critical regulators of innate and adaptive immunity and major mediators of inflammatory signaling. The NF-κB signaling is dysregulated in a significant number of cancers and drives malignant transformation through maintenance of constitutive pro-survival signaling and downregulation of apoptosis. Overactive NF-κB signaling results in overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and/or growth factors leading to accumulation of proliferative signals together with activation of innate and select adaptive immune cells. This state of chronic inflammation is now thought to be linked to induction of malignant transformation, angiogenesis, metastasis, subversion of adaptive immunity, and therapy resistance. Moreover, accumulating evidence indicates the involvement of NF-κB signaling in induction and maintenance of invasive phenotypes linked to epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis. In this review we summarize reported links of NF-κB signaling to sequential steps of transition from epithelial to mesenchymal phenotypes. Understanding the involvement of NF-κB in EMT regulation may contribute to formulating optimized therapeutic strategies in cancer. Video Abstract.

Evening Primrose Extract Modulates TYMS Expression via SP1 Transcription Factor in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma

PURPOSE

To determine the mechanism of EPE in downregulating TYMS in MPM cancer.

METHODS

The TYMS mRNA expression with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition biomarkers and nuclear factor SP1 was assessed using the GEO database in a data set of MPM patients (GSE51024). Invasive MPM cell lines were in vitro models for the investigation of TYMS expression after EPE treatment. The tyms promoter SP1 binding sequences were determined using Genomatix v 3.4 software Electrophoretic mobility shift and dual-luciferase reporter assays revealed specific SP1 motifs in the interaction of EPE and reference compounds. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and Re-ChIP were used for the co-occupancy study.

RESULTS

In MPM patients, a positive correlation of overexpressed TYMS with mesenchymal TWIST1, FN1 and N-cadherin was observed. EPE and its major components, gallic and ellagic acid (GA and EA, respectively), downregulated TYMS in invasive MPM cells by interacting with particular SP1 motifs on the tyms promoter. The luciferase constructs confirmed the occupation of two SP1 regulatory regions critical for the promotion of TYMS expression. Both EPE and reference standards influenced SP1 translocation into the nucleus.

CONCLUSION

EPE components reduced TYMS expression by occupation of SP1 motifs on the tyms promoter and reversed the EMT phenotype of invasive MPM cells. Further in-depth analysis of the molecular docking of polyphenol compounds with SP1 regulatory motifs is required.

Revolutionizing Human papillomavirus (HPV)-related cancer therapies: Unveiling the promise of Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs) and Proteolysis Targeting Antibodies (PROTABs) in cancer nano-vaccines

Personalized cancer immunotherapies, combined with nanotechnology (nano-vaccines), are revolutionizing cancer treatment strategies, explicitly targeting Human papilloma virus (HPV)-related cancers. Despite the availability of preventive vaccines, HPV-related cancers remain a global concern. Personalized cancer nano-vaccines, tailored to an individual's tumor genetic mutations, offer a unique and promising solution. Nanotechnology plays a critical role in these vaccines by efficiently delivering tumor-specific antigens, enhancing immune responses, and paving the way for precise and targeted therapies. Recent advancements in preclinical models have demonstrated the potential of polymeric nanoparticles and high-density lipoprotein-mimicking nano-discs in augmenting the efficacy of personalized cancer vaccines. However, challenges related to optimizing the nano-carrier system and ensuring safety in human trials persist. Excitingly, the integration of nanotechnology with Proteolysis-Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs) provides an additional avenue to enhance the effectiveness of personalized cancer treatment. PROTACs selectively degrade disease-causing proteins, amplifying the impact of nanotechnology-based therapies. Overcoming these challenges and leveraging the synergistic potential of nanotechnology, PROTACs, and Proteolysis-Targeting Antibodies hold great promise in pursuing novel and effective therapeutic solutions for individuals affected by HPV-related cancers.

Promyelocytic leukemia protein regulates angiogenesis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition to limit metastasis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) modulates diverse cell functions that contribute to both tumor suppressor and pro-oncogenic effects, depending on the cellular context. We show here that PML knockdown (KD) in MDA-MB-231, but not MCF7, breast cancer cells, prolonged stem-cell-like survival, and increased cell proliferation and migration, which is in line with gene-enrichment results from their RNA sequencing analysis. Of note, increased migration was accompanied by higher levels of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) regulator Twist-related protein 2 (TWIST2). We showed here that PML binds to TWIST2 via its basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) region and functionally interferes with the suppression of the epithelial target of TWIST2, CD24. In addition, PML ablation in MDA-MB-231 cells led to higher protein levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF1a), resulting in a higher cell hypoxic response. Functionally, PML directly suppressed the induction of the HIF1a target gene vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFa). In line with these results, tumor xenografts of MDA-MB-231 PML-KD cells had enhanced aggressive properties, including higher microvessel density, faster local growth, and higher metastatic ability, with a preference for lung. Collectively, PML suppresses the cancer aggressive behavior by multiple mechanisms that impede both the HIF-hypoxia-angiogenic and EMT pathways.

Tangeretin attenuates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition via the PI3K/Akt pathway

Background: Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a terminal pathological change in a variety of lung diseases characterized by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix, for which effective treatment is lacking. Tangeretin (Tan), a flavonoid derived from citrus, has been shown to have a wide range of pharmacological effects. This study aimed to investigate the role and potential mechanisms of Tan on pulmonary fibrosis. Methods: A model of pulmonary fibrosis was established by administering bleomycin through tracheal drip, followed by administering Tan or pirfenidone through gavage. HE and Masson staining were employed to assess the extent of pulmonary fibrosis. Subsequently, Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), RNA sequencing, and immunohistochemistry techniques were employed to uncover the protective mechanism of Tan in PF mice. Furthermore, A549 cells were stimulated with TGF-β1 to induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and demonstrate the effectiveness of Tan in mitigating PF. Results: Tan significantly ameliorated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis, improved fibrotic pathological changes, and collagen deposition in the lungs, and reduced lung inflammation and oxidative stress. The KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed a higher number of enriched genes in the PI3K/Akt pathway. Additionally, Tan can inhibit the EMT process related to pulmonary fibrosis. Conclusion: Taken together, the above research results indicate that Tan suppresses inflammation, oxidative stress, and EMT in BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis via the PI3K/Akt pathway and is a potential agent for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

Noncoding RNA circuitry in melanoma onset, plasticity, and therapeutic response

Melanoma, the cancer of the melanocyte, is the deadliest form of skin cancer with an aggressive nature, propensity to metastasize and tendency to resist therapeutic intervention. Studies have identified that the re-emergence of developmental pathways in melanoma contributes to melanoma onset, plasticity, and therapeutic response. Notably, it is well known that noncoding RNAs play a critical role in the development and stress response of tissues. In this review, we focus on the noncoding RNAs, including microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs, and other small RNAs, for their functions in developmental mechanisms and plasticity, which drive onset, progression, therapeutic response and resistance in melanoma. Going forward, elucidation of noncoding RNA-mediated mechanisms may provide insights that accelerate development of novel melanoma therapies.

Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition-Related Markers in Prostate Cancer: From Bench to Bedside

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most frequent type of cancer in men worldwide, with 288,300 new cases and 34,700 deaths estimated in the United States in 2023. Treatment options for early-stage disease include external beam radiation therapy, brachytherapy, radical prostatectomy, active surveillance, or a combination of these. In advanced cases, androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) is considered the first-line therapy; however, PCa in most patients eventually progresses to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) despite ADT. Nonetheless, the transition from androgen-dependent to androgen-independent tumors is not yet fully understood. The physiological processes of epithelial-to-non-epithelial ("mesenchymal") transition (EMT) and mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) are essential for normal embryonic development; however, they have also been linked to higher tumor grade, metastatic progression, and treatment resistance. Due to this association, EMT and MET have been identified as important targets for novel cancer therapies, including CRPC. Here, we discuss the transcriptional factors and signaling pathways involved in EMT, in addition to the diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers that have been identified in these processes. We also tackle the various studies that have been conducted from bench to bedside and the current landscape of EMT-targeted therapies.

Adefovir Dipivoxil as a Therapeutic Candidate for Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma: Targeting RET and STAT3 Proto-Oncogenes

Aberrant gene expression is often linked to the progression of various cancers, making the targeting of oncogene transcriptional activation a potential strategy to control tumor growth and development. The RET proto-oncogene’s gain-of-function mutation is a major cause of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), which is part of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) syndrome. In this study, we used a cell-based bioluminescence reporter system driven by the RET promoter to screen for small molecules that potentially suppress the RET gene transcription. We identified adefovir dipivoxil as a transcriptional inhibitor of the RET gene, which suppressed endogenous RET protein expression in MTC TT cells. Adefovir dipivoxil also interfered with STAT3 phosphorylation and showed high affinity to bind to STAT3. Additionally, it inhibited RET-dependent TT cell proliferation and increased apoptosis. These results demonstrate the potential of cell-based screening assays in identifying transcriptional inhibitors for other oncogenes.

Targeted therapy for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Mechanisms and clinical study

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive and lethal malignancy with a high rate of recurrence and a dismal 5-year survival rate. Contributing to the poor prognosis of PDAC is the lack of early detection, a complex network of signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms, a dense and desmoplastic stroma, and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. A recent shift toward a neoadjuvant approach to treating PDAC has been sparked by the numerous benefits neoadjuvant therapy (NAT) has to offer compared with upfront surgery. However, certain aspects of NAT against PDAC, including the optimal regimen, the use of radiotherapy, and the selection of patients that would benefit from NAT, have yet to be fully elucidated. This review describes the major signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in PDAC initiation and progression in addition to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment of PDAC. We then review current guidelines, ongoing research, and future research directions on the use of NAT based on randomized clinical trials and other studies. Finally, the current use of and research regarding targeted therapy for PDAC are examined. This review bridges the molecular understanding of PDAC with its clinical significance, development of novel therapies, and shifting directions in treatment paradigm.

Lenvatinib Synergistically Promotes Radiation Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma by Inhibiting Src/STAT3/NF-κB-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Metastasis

PURPOSE

This study suggested that lenvatinib may incapacitate hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to radiation treatment by abrogating radiation-induced Src/signal transducer and the activator of transcription 3 signaling (STAT3)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) to escalate radiation-induced extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis. These findings uncover the role of targeting Src and its arbitrating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which could increase the anti-HCC efficacy of radiation therapy (RT). Lenvatinib and sorafenib are multikinase inhibitors used to treat HCC. Lenvatinib is noninferior to sorafenib in the therapeutic response in HCC. However, whether lenvatinib intensifies the anti-HCC efficacy of RT is ambiguous. Several oncogenic kinases and transcription factors, such as Src, STAT3, and NF-κB, enhance the radiosensitivity of cancers. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the roles of the Src/STAT3/NF-κB axis in HCC after RT treatment and assessed whether targeting Src by lenvatinib may enhance the effectiveness of RT.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Hep3B, Huh7, HepG2, and SK-Hep1 HCC cells and 2 types of animal models were used to identify the efficacy of RT combined with lenvatinib. Cellular toxicity, apoptosis, DNA damage, EMT/metastasis regulation, and treatment efficacy were validated by colony formation, flow cytometry, Western blotting, and in vivo experiments, respectively. Knockdown of Src by siRNA was also used to validate the role of Src in RT treatment.

RESULTS

Silencing Src reduced STAT3/NF-κB signaling and sensitized HCC to radiation. Lenvatinib reversed radiation-elicited Src/STAT3/NF-κB signaling while enhancing the anti-HCC efficacy of radiation. Both lenvatinib and siSrc promoted the radiation effect of cell proliferation on suppression, inhibition of the invasion ability, and induction of apoptosis in HCC. Lenvatinib also alleviated radiation-triggered oncogenic and EMT-related protein expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings uncovered the role of the Src/STAT3/NF-κB regulatory axis in response to radiation-induced toxicity and confirmed Src as the key regulatory molecule for radiosensitization of HCC evoked by lenvatinib.

Extract of Ficus septica modulates apoptosis and migration in human oral squamous cell carcinoma cells

According to the alarming statistical analysis of global cancer, there are over 19 million new diagnoses and more than 10 million deaths each year. One such cancer is the oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), which requires new therapeutic strategies. Ficus septica extract has been used in traditional medicine to treat infectious diseases. In this study, we examined the anti-proliferative effects of an extract of F. septica bark (FSB) in OSCC cells. Our results showed that FSB caused a concentration-dependent reduction in the viability of SCC2095 OSCC cells, as determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays, and was less sensitive to fibroblasts. In addition, FSB induced apoptosis by activating caspases, accompanied by the modulation of Akt/mTOR/NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Moreover, FSB increased reactive oxygen species generation in a concentration-dependent manner in SCC2095 cells. Furthermore, FSB inhibited cell migration and modulated the levels of the cell adhesion molecules including E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and Snail in SCC2095 cells. Pinoresinol, a lignan isolated from FSB, showed antitumor effects in SCC2095 cells, implying that this compound might play an important role in FSB-induced OSCC cell death. Taken together, FSB is a potential anti-tumor agent against OSCC cells.

Deregulated transcription factors and poor clinical outcomes in cancer patients

Transcription factors are a group of proteins, which possess DNA-binding domains, bind to DNA strands of promoters or enhancers, and initiate transcription of genes with cooperation of RNA polymerase and other co-factors. They play crucial roles in regulating transcription during embryogenesis and development. Their physiological status in different cell types is also important to maintain cellular homeostasis. Therefore, any deregulation of transcription factors will lead to the development of cancer cells and tumor progression. Based on their functions in cancer cells, transcription factors could be either oncogenic or tumor suppressive. Furthermore, transcription factors have been shown to modulate cancer stem cells, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and drug response; therefore, measuring deregulated transcription factors is hypothesized to predict treatment outcomes of patients with cancers and targeting deregulated transcription factors could be an encouraging strategy for cancer therapy. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of major deregulated transcription factors and their effects on causing poor clinical outcome of patients with cancer. The information presented here will help to predict the prognosis and drug response and to design novel drugs and therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cancers by targeting deregulated transcription factors.

The Role of PTEN in Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition

Simple Summary

The PTEN phosphatase is a ubiquitously expressed tumor suppressor, which inhibits the PI3K/AKT pathway in the cell. The PI3K/AKT pathway is considered to be one of the main signaling pathways that drives the proliferation of cancer cells. Furthermore, the same pathway controls the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT is an evolutionarily conserved developmental program, which, upon aberrant reactivation, is also involved in the formation of cancer metastases. Importantly, metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-associated deaths. In this review, we discuss the literature data that highlight the role of PTEN in EMT. Based on this knowledge, we speculate about new possible strategies for cancer treatment.

Abstract

Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog deleted on Chromosome 10 (PTEN) is one of the critical tumor suppressor genes and the main negative regulator of the PI3K pathway. PTEN is frequently found to be inactivated, either partially or fully, in various malignancies. The PI3K/AKT pathway is considered to be one of the main signaling cues that drives the proliferation of cells. Perhaps it is not surprising, then, that this pathway is hyperactivated in highly proliferative tumors. Importantly, the PI3K/AKT pathway also coordinates the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is pivotal for the initiation of metastases and hence is regarded as an attractive target for the treatment of metastatic cancer. It was shown that PTEN suppresses EMT, although the exact mechanism of this effect is still not fully understood. This review is an attempt to systematize the published information on the role of PTEN in the development of malignant tumors, with a main focus on the regulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway in EMT.

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition based diagnostic and prognostic signature markers in non-muscle invasive and muscle invasive bladder cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Diagnostic and prognostic significance of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) associated biomarkers are evaluated in a cohort of NMIBC (non-muscle invasive bladder cancer) and MIBC (muscle invasive bladder cancer) patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining were carried out in 100 tumor specimens (59 NMIBC and 41 MIBC). The expressions of the epithelial marker, mesenchymal markers and EMT-activating transcription factors (EMT-ATFs) were determined at transcriptome and protein level followed by their statistical associations with clinicohistopathological variables of the patients. Transcriptomic expression analysis showed statistical relevance of tumor stage with increased Twist and Zeb-1; tumor type with reduced E-cadherin and increased Snail; and smoking/tobacco chewing status (S/TC) of patients with increased N-cadherin and Snail in NMIBC patients. Tumor grade with reduced message E-cadherin, gain of N-cadherin, Snail, Twist and Zeb-1; patients' age with reduced E-cadherin and Twist gain; and tumor type with increased message N-cadherin exhibited associations in MIBC patients. Protein expression analysis identified statistical relevance of tumor grade with nuclear gain of Snail and Twist; and nuclear gain of Slug with S/TC status of NMIBC patients. Novel gain of membranous Vimentin deduced association with patients' age in MIBC patients. Survival analysis identified novel Vimentin as the positive predictor of short progression free survival (PFS) and short overall survival (OS) in MIBC patients. Study established altered EMT profile as the independent negative predictor of short recurrence free survival (RFS) in NMIBC patients and positive predictor of short PFS and OS in MIBC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

EMT associated biomarkers could provide diagnostic and prognostic risk stratification and hence could be of importance in the clinical management of bladder cancer patients.

Predictive Efficacy of Circulating Tumor Cells in First Drainage Vein Blood from Patients with Colorectal Cancer liver Metastasis

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are associated with metastasis. However, the low rate of detection of CTCs in peripheral vein blood (PVB) limits their clinical application. In this study, we observed higher positive rates of CTC in first drainage vein blood (FDVB) relative to peripheral venous blood (P < 0.001). Moreover, the CTC content was related to liver metastasis, T stage and CA19-9 levels. Our collective data suggest that CTCs in FDVB have good predictive utility for risk of liver metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC), in particular, metachronous liver metastasis.

SARS-CoV-2 M Protein Facilitates Malignant Transformation of Breast Cancer Cells

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread faster due to the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants, which carry an increased risk of infecting patients with comorbidities, such as breast cancer. However, there are still few reports on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the progression of breast cancer, as well as the factors and mechanisms involved. In the present study, we investigated the impact of SARS-CoV-2 proteins on breast cancer cells (BCC). The results suggested that SARS-CoV-2 M protein induced the mobility, proliferation, stemness and in vivo metastasis of a triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line, MDA-MB-231, which are involved in the upregulation of NFκB and STAT3 pathways. In addition, compared to MDA-MB-231 cells, the hormone-dependent breast cancer cell line MCF-7 showed a less response to M protein, with the protein showing no effects of promoting proliferation, stemness, and in vivo metastasis. Of note, coculture with M protein-treated MDA-MB-231 cells significantly induced the migration, proliferation, and stemness of MCF-7 cells, which are involved in the upregulation of genes related to EMT and inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 infection might promote the ability of aggressive BCC to induce the malignant phenotypes of the other non-aggressive BCC. Taken together, these findings suggested an increased risk of poor outcomes in TNBC patients with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection, which required a long-term follow-up. In addition, the inhibition of NFκB and STAT3 signaling pathways is considered as a promising candidate for the treatment of worsen clinical outcomes in TNBC patients with COVID-19.

Anastasis: cell recovery mechanisms and potential role in cancer

Balanced cell death and survival are among the most important cell development and homeostasis pathways that can play a critical role in the onset or progress of malignancy steps. Anastasis is a natural cell recovery pathway that rescues cells after removing the apoptosis-inducing agent or brink of death. The cells recuperate and recover to an active and stable state. So far, minimal knowledge is available about the molecular mechanisms of anastasis. Still, several involved pathways have been explained: recovery through mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, caspase cascade arrest, repairing DNA damage, apoptotic bodies formation, and phosphatidylserine. Anastasis can facilitate the survival of damaged or tumor cells, promote malignancy, and increase drug resistance and metastasis. Here, we noted recently known mechanisms of the anastasis process and underlying molecular mechanisms. Additionally, we summarize the consequences of anastatic mechanisms in the initiation and progress of malignancy, cancer cell metastasis, and drug resistance. Video Abstract.

Identification and Characterization of Human Colorectal Cancer Cluster Predominantly Expressing EP3 Prostanoid Receptor Subtype

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the common types of cancer in humans. Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) is a well-known mediator of colorectal cancer through stimulation of four E-type prostanoid (EP) receptor subtypes: EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4 receptors. All subtypes of EP receptors are involved in CRC promotion or malignancy. However, the characteristics of CRC that highly expresses EP receptor subtypes have not been clarified. In the present study, we classified CRC from a cancer genomic database and identified CRC clusters which highly express EP receptor subtypes. Most of these clusters predominantly expressed one subtype of EP receptor and showed different gene expression patterns. Among them, we focused on the cluster highly expressing the EP3 receptor (CL-EP3). As the result of characterization of gene expression, CL-EP3 was characterized as: epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT)-induced progressed cancer with activation of transforming growth factor-β pathway, activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, and suppression of runt-related transcription factor 3. Since we previously reported that EP3 receptor is involved in and induce colon cancer cell migration, EP3 receptor-expressing CRC may induce metastasis through these signaling pathways. Thus, the findings suggest the effectiveness of cancer clustering by gene expression of the EP receptor subtype to elucidate the mechanism of human CRC.

Deubiquitinating enzyme USP9X regulates metastasis and chemoresistance in triple-negative breast cancer by stabilizing Snail1

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignancies in women worldwide. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and metastatic subtype that has the characteristics of easy recurrence, poor prognosis as well as lack of targeted therapeutics. Snail1, a key factor regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, contributing to metastasis and chemoresistance in human cancers. However, the molecular mechanism of Snail1 stabilization in cancers is not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that the deubiquitinating enzyme USP9X deubiquitinates and stabilizes Snail1, thereby promoting metastasis and chemoresistance. The depletion and pharmacological inhibition of USP9X by WP1130, an inhibitor of USP9X, downregulate endogenous Snail1 protein, inhibit cell migration, invasion, metastasis, and increase cellular sensitivity to cisplatin and paclitaxel both in vitro and in vivo, whereas the reconstitution of Snail1 in cells with USP9X depletion at least partially reverses these phenotypes. Overall, our study establishes the USP9X-Snail1 axis as an important regulatory mechanism of breast cancer metastasis and chemoresistance and provides a rationale for potential therapeutic interventions in the treatment of TNBC.

Marine Migrastatics: A Comprehensive 2022 Update

Metastasis is responsible for the bad prognosis in cancer patients. Advances in research on metastasis prevention focus attention on the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer cell motility and invasion to improve therapies for long-term survival in cancer patients. The so-called "migrastatics" could help block cancer cell invasion and lead to the rapid development of antimetastatic therapies, improving conventional cancer therapies. In the relentless search for migrastatics, the marine environment represents an important source of natural compounds due to its enormous biodiversity. Thus, this review is a selection of scientific research that has pointed out in a broad spectrum of in vitro and in vivo models the anti-cancer power of marine-derived products against cancer cell migration and invasion over the past five years. Overall, this review might provide a useful up-to-date guide about marine-derived compounds with potential interest for pharmaceutical and scientific research on antimetastatic drug endpoints.

Concurrent Chemoradiotherapy-Driven Cell Plasticity by miR-200 Family Implicates the Therapeutic Response of Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a common and fatal malignancy with an increasing incidence worldwide. Over the past decade, concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CCRT) with or without surgery is an emerging therapeutic approach for locally advanced ESCC. Unfortunately, many patients exhibit poor response or develop acquired resistance to CCRT. Once resistance occurs, the overall survival rate drops down rapidly and without proper further treatment options, poses a critical clinical challenge for ESCC therapy. Here, we utilized lab-created CCRT-resistant cells as a preclinical study model to investigate the association of chemoradioresistantresistance with miRNA-mediated cell plasticity alteration, and to determine whether reversing EMT status can re-sensitize refractory cancer cells to CCRT response. During the CCRT treatment course, refractory cancer cells adopted the conversion of epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype; additionally, miR-200 family members were found significantly down-regulated in CCRT resistance cells by miRNA microarray screening. Down-regulated miR-200 family in CCRT resistance cells suppressed E-cadherin expression through snail and slug, and accompany with an increase in N-cadherin. Rescuing expressions of miR-200 family members in CCRT resistance cells, particularly in miR-200b and miR-200c, could convert cells to epithelial phenotype by increasing E-cadherin expression and sensitize cells to CCRT treatment. Conversely, the suppression of miR-200b and miR-200c in ESCC cells attenuated E-cadherin, and that converted cells to mesenchymal type by elevating N-cadherin expression, and impaired cell sensitivity to CCRT treatment. Moreover, the results of ESCC specimens staining established the clinical relevance that higher N-cadherin expression levels associate with the poor CCRT response outcome in ESCC patients. Conclusively, miR-200b and miR-200c can modulate the conversion of epithelial-mesenchymal phenotype in ESCC, and thereby altering the response of cells to CCRT treatment. Targeting epithelial-mesenchymal conversion in acquired CCRT resistance may be a potential therapeutic option for ESCC patients.

Deficiency of TTYH1 Expression Reduces the Migration and Invasion of U2OS Human Osteosarcoma Cells

The Tweety homolog (TTYH) chloride channel family is involved in oncogenic processes including cell proliferation, invasion, and colonization of cancers. Among the TTYH family, TTYH1 is highly expressed in several cancer cells, such as glioma, breast, and gastric cancer cells. However, the role of TTYH1 in the progression of osteosarcoma remains unknown. Here, we report that deficient TTYH1 expression results in the inhibition of the migration and invasion of U2OS human osteosarcoma cells. We found that TTYH1 was endogenously expressed at both mRNA and protein levels in U2OS cells and that these channels were located at the plasma membrane of the cells. Moreover, we found that silencing of the TTYH1 with small interfering RNA (siRNA) resulted in a decrease in the migration and invasion of U2OS cells, while the proliferation of the cells was not affected. Additionally, treatment with TTYH1 siRNA significantly suppressed the mRNA expression of epithelial−mesenchymal transition (EMT)-regulated transcription factors such as Zinc E-Box Binding Homeobox 1 (ZEB1) and SNAIL. Most importantly, the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MPP-9, and N-cadherin was dramatically reduced following the silencing of TTYH1. Taken together, our findings suggest that silencing of TTYH1 expression reduces migration and invasion of U2OS cells and that TTYH1 may act as a potential molecular target for osteosarcoma treatment.

Impact of Non-Coding RNAs on Chemotherapeutic Resistance in Oral Cancer

Drug resistance in oral cancer is one of the major problems in oral cancer therapy because therapeutic failure directly results in tumor recurrence and eventually in metastasis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated the involvement of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), in processes related to the development of drug resistance. A number of studies have shown that ncRNAs modulate gene expression at the transcriptional or translational level and regulate biological processes, such as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, apoptosis, DNA repair and drug efflux, which are tightly associated with drug resistance acquisition in many types of cancer. Interestingly, these ncRNAs are commonly detected in extracellular vesicles (EVs) and are known to be delivered into surrounding cells. This intercellular communication via EVs is currently considered to be important for acquired drug resistance. Here, we review the recent advances in the study of drug resistance in oral cancer by mainly focusing on the function of ncRNAs, since an increasing number of studies have suggested that ncRNAs could be therapeutic targets as well as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis.

Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Signaling Pathways Responsible for Breast Cancer Metastasis

Breast carcinoma is highly metastatic and invasive. Tumor metastasis is a convoluted and multistep process involving tumor cell disseminating from their primary site and migrating to the secondary organ. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the crucial steps that initiate cell progression, invasion, and metastasis. During EMT, epithelial cells alter their molecular features and acquire a mesenchymal phenotype. The regulation of EMT is centered by several signaling pathways, including primary mediators TGF-β, Notch, Wnt, TNF-α, Hedgehog, and RTKs. It is also affected by hypoxia and microRNAs (miRNAs). All these pathways are the convergence on the transcriptional factors such as Snail, Slug, Twist, and ZEB1/2. In addition, a line of evidence suggested that EMT and cancer stem like cells (CSCs) are associated. EMT associated cancer stem cells display mesenchymal phenotypes and resist to chemotherapy or targeted therapy. In this review, we highlighted recent discoveries in these signaling pathways and their regulation in breast cancer metastasis and invasion. While the clinical relevance of EMT and breast cancers remains controversial, we speculated a convergent signaling network pivotal to elucidating the transition of epithelial to mesenchymal phenotypes and onset of metastasis of breast cancer cells.

Applications of Extracellular Vesicles in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and refractory subtype of breast cancer, often occurring in younger patients with poor clinical prognosis. Given the current lack of specific targets for effective intervention, the development of better treatment strategies remains an unmet medical need. Over the last decade, the field of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has grown tremendously, offering immense potential for clinical diagnosis/prognosis and therapeutic applications. While TNBC-EVs have been shown to play an important role in tumorigenesis, chemoresistance and metastasis, they could be repurposed as potential biomarkers for TNBC diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, EVs from various cell types can be utilized as nanoscale drug delivery systems (NDDS) for TNBC treatment. Remarkably, EVs generated from specific immune cell subsets have been shown to delay solid tumour growth and reduce tumour burden, suggesting a new immunotherapy approach for TNBC. Intrinsically, EVs can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which holds great potential to treat the brain metastases diagnosed in one third of TNBC patients that remains a substantial clinical challenge. In this review, we present the most recent applications of EVs in TNBC as diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers, nanoscale drug delivery systems and immunotherapeutic agents, as well as discuss the associated challenges and future directions of EVs in cancer immunotherapy.

EMT and Inflammation: Crossroads in HCC

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the major causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide and is associated with several inflammatory mediators, since 90% of HCCs occur based on chronic hepatitis B or C, alcoholism or increasingly metabolic syndrome-associated inflammation. EMT is a physiological process, with coordinated changes in epithelial gene signatures and is regulated by multiple factors, including cytokines and growth factors such as TGFβ, EGF, and FGF. Recent reports propose a strong association between EMT and inflammation, which is also correlated with tumor aggressiveness and poor outcomes. Cellular heterogeneity results collectively as an outcome of EMT, inflammation, and the tumor microenvironment, and it plays a fundamental role in the progression, complexity of cancer, and chemoresistance. In this review, we highlight recent developments concerning the association of EMT and inflammation in the context of HCC progression. Identifying potential EMT-related biomarkers and understanding EMT regulatory molecules will likely contribute to promising developments in clinical practice and will be a valuable tool for predicting metastasis in general and specifically in HCC.

Targeting lysine-specific demethylase 1A inhibits renal epithelial-mesenchymal transition and attenuates renal fibrosis

Lysine-specific histone demethylase 1 (LSD1) as the first identified histone/lysine demethylase regulates gene expression and protein functions in diverse diseases. In this study, we show that the expression of LSD1 is increased in mouse kidneys with unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and in cultured NRK-52E cells undergoing TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Inhibition of LSD1 with its specific inhibitor ORY1001 attenuated renal EMT and fibrosis, which was associated with decreased the deposition of extracellular matrix proteins and the expression of fibrotic markers, including α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and fibronectin, and the recovery of E-cadherin expression and decrease of N-cadherin expression in UUO kidneys and in NRK-52E cells induced with TGF-β1. Targeting LSD1 also decreased the expression of Snail family transcriptional repressor 1 (Snail-1) and its interaction with LSD1 in UUO kidneys and in NRK-52E cells treated with TGF-β1. In addition, we identified a novel LSD1-14-3-3ζ-PKCα axis in the regulation of the activation of AKT and Stat3 and then the activation of fibroblasts. This study suggests that LSD1 plays a critical role in regulation of renal EMT and fibrosis through activation of diverse signaling pathways and places an emphasis that LSD1 has potential as a therapeutic target for the treatment of renal fibrosis.

The Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Influences the Resistance of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma to Monoclonal Antibodies via Its Effect on Energy Homeostasis and the Tumor Microenvironment

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a major type of cancer that accounts for over 90% of all oral cancer cases. Recently developed evidence-based therapeutic regimens for OSCC based on monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), such as cetuximab, pembrolizumab, and nivolumab, have attracted considerable attention worldwide due to their high specificity, low toxicity, and low rates of intolerance. However, the efficacy of those three mAbs remains poor because of the low rate of responders and acquired resistance within a short period of time. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process is fundamental for OSCC growth and metastasis and is also responsible for the poor response to mAbs. During EMT, cancer cells consume abundant energy substrates and create an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment to support their growth and evade T cells. In this review, we provide an overview of the complex roles of major substrates and signaling pathways involved in the development of therapeutic resistance in OSCC. In addition, we summarize potential therapeutic strategies that may help overcome this resistance. This review aims to help oral oncologists and researchers aiming to manage OSCC and establish new treatment modalities.

Peroxiredoxin-6 regulates p38-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition in HCT116 colon cancer cells

Background

Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are antioxidant enzymes that protect cells from oxidative stress induced by several factors. They regulate several signaling pathways, such as metabolism, immune response, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis. Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a transforming process that induces the loss of epithelial features of cancer cells and the gain of the mesenchymal phenotype. The EMT promotes metastasis and cancer cell progression mediated by several pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and epigenetic regulators.

Methods

We used Prx6 overexpressed and downregulated HCT116 cells to study the mechanism between Prx6 and colon cancer. The expression of Prx6, GAPDH, Snail, Twist1, E-cadherin, Vimentin, N-cadherin, ERK, p-ERK, p38, p-p38, JNK, and p-JNK were detected by Western blotting. Additionally, an animal study for xenograft assay was conducted to explore the function of Prx6 on tumorigenesis. Cell proliferation and migration were determined by IncuCyte Cell Proliferation and colony formation assays.

Results

We confirmed that the expression of Prx6 and EMT signaling highly occurs in HCT116 compared with that in other colon cancer cell lines. Prx6 regulates the EMT signaling pathway by modulating EMT-related transcriptional repressors and mesenchymal genes in HCT116 colon cancer cells. Under the Prx6-overexpressed condition, HCT116 cells proliferation increased significantly. Moreover, the HCT116 cells proliferation decreased in the siPrx6-treated cells. Eleven days after HCT116 cell injection, Prx6 was overexpressed in the HCT116-injected mice, and the tumor volume increased significantly compared with that of the control mice. Furthermore, Prx6 regulates EMT signaling through p38 phosphorylation in colon cancer cells.

Conclusion

We suggested that Prx6 regulates EMT signaling pathway through p38 phosphorylation modulation in HCT116 colon cancer cells.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40709-021-00153-6.

Targeting the ILK/YAP axis by LFG-500 blocks epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis

Metastasis is the main cause of mortality in patients with cancer. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a crucial process in cancer metastasis, is an established target for antimetastatic drug development. LFG-500, a novel synthetic flavonoid, has been revealed as a potential antitumor agent owing to its various activities, including modulation of EMT in the inflammatory microenvironment. Here, using a transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)-induced EMT models, we found that LFG-500 inhibited EMT-associated migration and invasion in human breast cancer, MCF-7, and lung adenocarcinoma, A549, cell lines, consistent with the observed downregulation of YAP activity. Further studies demonstrated that LGF-500-induced suppression of YAP activation was mediated by integrin-linked kinase (ILK), suggesting that the ILK/YAP axis might be feasible target for anti-EMT and antimetastatic treatments, which was verified by a correlation analysis with clinical data and tumor specimens. Hence, our data support the use of LGF-500 as an antimetastatic drug in cancer therapy and provide evidence that the ILK/YAP axis is a feasible biomarker of cancer progression and a promising target for repression of EMT and metastasis in cancer therapy.

[Cysteine cathepsins: structure, physiological functions and their role in carcinogenesis]

Cysteine cathepsins (Cts) also known as thiol proteinases belong to the superfamily of cysteine proteinases (EC 3.4.22). Cts are known as lysosomal proteases responsible for the intracellular proteins degradation. All Cts are synthesized as zymogens, activation of which occurs autocatalytically. Their activity is regulated by endogenous inhibitors. Cts can be secreted into the extracellular environment, which is of particular importance in tumor progression. Extracellular Cts not only hydrolyze extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, but also contribute to ECM remodeling, processing and/or release of cell adhesion molecules, growth factors, cytokines and chemokines. In cancer, the expression and activity of Cts sharply increase both in cell lysosomes and in the intercellular space, which correlates with neoplastic transformation, invasion, metastasis and leads to further tumor progression. It has been shown that Cts expression depends on the cells type, therefore, their role in the tumor development differs depending on their cellular origin. The mechanism of Cts action in cancer is not limited only by their proteolytic action. The Cts influence on signal transduction pathways associated with cancer development, including the pathway involving growth factors, which is mediated through receptors tyrosine kinases (RTK) and various signaling mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), has been proven. In addition, Cts are able to promote the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by activating signal transduction pathways such as Wnt, Notch, and the pathway involving TGF-β. So, Ctc perform specific both destructive and regulatory functions, carrying out proteolysis, both inside and outside the cell.

Normal Skin Cells Increase Aggressiveness of Cutaneous Melanoma by Promoting Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition via Nodal and Wnt Activity

Melanoma is a lethal form of skin cancer triggered by genetic and environmental factors. Excision of early-stage, poorly aggressive melanoma often leads to a successful outcome; however, left undiagnosed these lesions can progress to metastatic disease. This research investigates whether the exposure of poorly aggressive melanoma to certain normal skin cells can explain how non-metastatic melanoma becomes more aggressive while still confined to the skin. To this end, we used a serial co-culture approach to sequentially expose cells from two different, poorly aggressive human melanoma cell lines against normal cells of the skin beginning with normal melanocytes, then epidermal keratinocytes, and finally dermal fibroblasts. Protein extraction of melanoma cells occurred at each step of the co-culture sequence for western blot (WB) analysis. In addition, morphological and functional changes were assessed to detect differences between the serially co-cultured melanoma cells and non-co-cultured cells. Results show that the co-cultured melanoma cells assumed a more mesenchymal morphology and displayed a significant increase in proliferation and invasiveness compared to control or reference cells. WB analysis of protein from the co-cultured melanoma cells showed increased expression of Snail and decreased levels of E-cadherin suggesting that epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is occurring in these co-cultured cells. Additional WB analysis showed increased levels of Nodal protein and signaling and signs of increased Wnt activity in the co-cultured melanoma cells compared to reference cells. These data suggest that interaction between poorly aggressive melanoma cells with normal cells of the skin may regulate the transition from localized, poorly aggressive melanoma to invasive, metastatic disease via Nodal and/or Wnt induced EMT.

Nanocomplex of Berberine with C60 Fullerene Is a Potent Suppressor of Lewis Lung Carcinoma Cells Invasion In Vitro and Metastatic Activity In Vivo

Effective targeting of metastasis is considered the main problem in cancer therapy. The development of herbal alkaloid Berberine (Ber)-based anticancer drugs is limited due to Ber’ low effective concentration, poor membrane permeability, and short plasma half-life. To overcome these limitations, we used Ber noncovalently bound to C₆₀ fullerene (C₆₀). The complexation between C₆₀ and Ber molecules was evidenced with computer simulation. The aim of the present study was to estimate the effect of the free Ber and C₆₀-Ber nanocomplex in a low Ber equivalent concentration on Lewis lung carcinoma cells (LLC) invasion potential, expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers in vitro, and the ability of cancer cells to form distant lung metastases in vivo in a mice model of LLC. It was shown that in contrast to free Ber its nanocomplex with C₆₀ demonstrated significantly higher efficiency to suppress invasion potential, to downregulate the level of EMT-inducing transcription factors SNAI1, ZEB1, and TWIST1, to unblock expression of epithelial marker E-cadherin, and to repress cancer stem cells-like markers. More importantly, a relatively low dose of C₆₀-Ber nanocomplex was able to suppress lung metastasis in vivo. These findings indicated that сomplexation of natural alkaloid Ber with C₆₀ can be used as an additional therapeutic strategy against aggressive lung cancer.

Role of TGF-β signaling in the mechanisms of tamoxifen resistance

The transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays complex role in the regulation of cell proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation in breast cancer. TGF-β activation can lead to multiple cellular responses mediating the drug resistance evolution, including the resistance to antiestrogens. Tamoxifen is the most commonly prescribed antiestrogen that functionally involved in regulation of TGF-β activity. In this review, we focus on the role of TGF-β signaling in the mechanisms of tamoxifen resistance, including its interaction with estrogen receptors alfa (ERα) pathway and breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). We summarize the current reported data regarding TGF-β signaling components as markers of tamoxifen resistance and review current approaches to overcoming tamoxifen resistance based on studies of TGF-β signaling.

Targeting microRNAs with thymoquinone: a new approach for cancer therapy

Cancer is a global disease involving transformation of normal cells into tumor types via numerous mechanisms, with mortality among all generations, in spite of the breakthroughs in chemotherapy, radiotherapy and/or surgery for cancer treatment. Since one in six deaths is due to cancer, it is one of the overriding priorities of world health. Recently, bioactive natural compounds have been widely recognized due to their therapeutic effects for treatment of various chronic disorders, notably cancer. Thymoquinone (TQ), the most valuable constituent of black cumin seeds, has shown anti-cancer characteristics in a wide range of animal models. The revolutionary findings have revealed TQ's ability to regulate microRNA (miRNA) expression, offering a promising approach for cancer therapy. MiRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that modulate gene expression by means of variation in features of mRNA. MiRNAs manage several biological processes including gene expression and cellular signaling pathways. Accordingly, miRNAs can be considered as hallmarks for cancer diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The purpose of this study was to review the various molecular mechanisms by which TQ exerts its potential as an anti-cancer agent through modulating miRNAs.