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Goswami D, Patel H, Betz W, Armstrong J, Camargo N, Patil A, Chakravarty S, Murphy SC, Sim BKL, Vaughan AM, Hoffman SL, Kappe SH. A replication competent Plasmodium falciparum parasite completely attenuated by dual gene deletion. EMBO Mol Med 2024; 16:723-754. [PMID: 38514791 PMCID: PMC11018819 DOI: 10.1038/s44321-024-00057-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccination with infectious Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites (SPZ) administered with antimalarial drugs (PfSPZ-CVac), confers superior sterilizing protection against infection when compared to vaccination with replication-deficient, radiation-attenuated PfSPZ. However, the requirement for drug administration constitutes a major limitation for PfSPZ-CVac. To obviate this limitation, we generated late liver stage-arresting replication competent (LARC) parasites by deletion of the Mei2 and LINUP genes (mei2-/linup- or LARC2). We show that Plasmodium yoelii (Py) LARC2 sporozoites did not cause breakthrough blood stage infections and engendered durable sterilizing immunity against various infectious sporozoite challenges in diverse strains of mice. We next genetically engineered a PfLARC2 parasite strain that was devoid of extraneous DNA and produced cryopreserved PfSPZ-LARC2. PfSPZ-LARC2 liver stages replicated robustly in liver-humanized mice but displayed severe defects in late liver stage differentiation and did not form liver stage merozoites. This resulted in complete abrogation of parasite transition to viable blood stage infection. Therefore, PfSPZ-LARC2 is the next-generation vaccine strain expected to unite the safety profile of radiation-attenuated PfSPZ with the superior protective efficacy of PfSPZ-CVac.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashree Goswami
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Hardik Patel
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - William Betz
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Janna Armstrong
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Nelly Camargo
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Asha Patil
- Sanaria Inc., 9800 Medical Center Dr., Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | | | - Sean C Murphy
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - B Kim Lee Sim
- Sanaria Inc., 9800 Medical Center Dr., Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Ashley M Vaughan
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Stefan Hi Kappe
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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2
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Cryopreservation of Plasmodium Sporozoites. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11121487. [PMID: 36558821 PMCID: PMC9784981 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11121487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a deadly disease caused by the parasite, Plasmodium, and impacts the lives of millions of people around the world. Following inoculation into mammalian hosts by infected mosquitoes, the sporozoite stage of Plasmodium undergoes obligate development in the liver before infecting erythrocytes and causing clinical malaria. The most promising vaccine candidates for malaria rely on the use of attenuated live sporozoites to induce protective immune responses. The scope of widespread testing or clinical use of such vaccines is limited by the absence of efficient, reliable, or transparent strategies for the long-term preservation of live sporozoites. Here we outline a method to cryopreserve the sporozoites of various human and murine Plasmodium species. We found that the structural integrity, viability, and in vivo or in vitro infectiousness were conserved in the recovered cryopreserved sporozoites. Cryopreservation using our approach also retained the transgenic properties of sporozoites and immunization with cryopreserved radiation attenuated sporozoites (RAS) elicited strong immune responses. Our work offers a reliable protocol for the long-term storage and recovery of human and murine Plasmodium sporozoites and lays the groundwork for the widespread use of live sporozoites for research and clinical applications.
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3
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Blight J, Sala KA, Atcheson E, Kramer H, El-Turabi A, Real E, Dahalan FA, Bettencourt P, Dickinson-Craig E, Alves E, Salman AM, Janse CJ, Ashcroft FM, Hill AV, Reyes-Sandoval A, Blagborough AM, Baum J. Dissection-independent production of Plasmodium sporozoites from whole mosquitoes. Life Sci Alliance 2021; 4:e202101094. [PMID: 34135099 PMCID: PMC8321652 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202101094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Progress towards a protective vaccine against malaria remains slow. To date, only limited protection has been routinely achieved following immunisation with either whole-parasite (sporozoite) or subunit-based vaccines. One major roadblock to vaccine progress, and to pre-erythrocytic parasite biology in general, is the continued reliance on manual salivary gland dissection for sporozoite isolation from infected mosquitoes. Here, we report development of a multi-step method, based on batch processing of homogenised whole mosquitoes, slurry, and density-gradient filtration, which combined with free-flow electrophoresis rapidly produces a pure, infective sporozoite inoculum. Human-infective Plasmodium falciparum and rodent-infective Plasmodium berghei sporozoites produced in this way are two- to threefold more infective than salivary gland dissection sporozoites in in vitro hepatocyte infection assays. In an in vivo rodent malaria model, the same P. berghei sporozoites confer sterile protection from mosquito-bite challenge when immunisation is delivered intravenously or 60-70% protection when delivered intramuscularly. By improving purity, infectivity, and immunogenicity, this method represents a key advancement in capacity to produce research-grade sporozoites, which should impact delivery of a whole-parasite based malaria vaccine at scale in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Blight
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Katarzyna A Sala
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
| | - Erwan Atcheson
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Holger Kramer
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Henry Wellcome Building for Gene Function, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Medical Research Council London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
| | - Aadil El-Turabi
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Eliana Real
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
| | - Farah A Dahalan
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
| | - Paulo Bettencourt
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Emma Dickinson-Craig
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Eduardo Alves
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Ahmed M Salman
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Chris J Janse
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden Malaria Research Group, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, (LUMC, L4-Q), Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Frances M Ashcroft
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Henry Wellcome Building for Gene Function, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Adrian Vs Hill
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
| | - Arturo Reyes-Sandoval
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, UK
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Andrew M Blagborough
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jake Baum
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK
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4
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Abstract
Immunity to malaria has been linked to the availability and function of helper CD4+ T cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and γδ T cells that can respond to both the asymptomatic liver stage and the symptomatic blood stage of Plasmodium sp. infection. These T cell responses are also thought to be modulated by regulatory T cells. However, the precise mechanisms governing the development and function of Plasmodium-specific T cells and their capacity to form tissue-resident and long-lived memory populations are less well understood. The field has arrived at a point where the push for vaccines that exploit T cell-mediated immunity to malaria has made it imperative to define and reconcile the mechanisms that regulate the development and functions of Plasmodium-specific T cells. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanisms by which T cell subsets orchestrate host resistance to Plasmodium infection on the basis of observational and mechanistic studies in humans, non-human primates and rodent models. We also examine the potential of new experimental strategies and human infection systems to inform a new generation of approaches to harness T cell responses against malaria.
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5
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Ishizuka AS, Lyke KE, DeZure A, Berry AA, Richie TL, Mendoza FH, Enama ME, Gordon IJ, Chang LJ, Sarwar UN, Zephir KL, Holman LA, James ER, Billingsley PF, Gunasekera A, Chakravarty S, Manoj A, Li M, Ruben AJ, Li T, Eappen AG, Stafford RE, K C N, Murshedkar T, DeCederfelt H, Plummer SH, Hendel CS, Novik L, Costner PJM, Saunders JG, Laurens MB, Plowe CV, Flynn B, Whalen WR, Todd JP, Noor J, Rao S, Sierra-Davidson K, Lynn GM, Epstein JE, Kemp MA, Fahle GA, Mikolajczak SA, Fishbaugher M, Sack BK, Kappe SHI, Davidson SA, Garver LS, Björkström NK, Nason MC, Graham BS, Roederer M, Sim BKL, Hoffman SL, Ledgerwood JE, Seder RA. Protection against malaria at 1 year and immune correlates following PfSPZ vaccination. Nat Med 2016; 22:614-23. [PMID: 27158907 PMCID: PMC11294733 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
An attenuated Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoite (SPZ) vaccine, PfSPZ Vaccine, is highly protective against controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) 3 weeks after immunization, but the durability of protection is unknown. We assessed how vaccine dosage, regimen, and route of administration affected durable protection in malaria-naive adults. After four intravenous immunizations with 2.7 × 10(5) PfSPZ, 6/11 (55%) vaccinated subjects remained without parasitemia following CHMI 21 weeks after immunization. Five non-parasitemic subjects from this dosage group underwent repeat CHMI at 59 weeks, and none developed parasitemia. Although Pf-specific serum antibody levels correlated with protection up to 21-25 weeks after immunization, antibody levels waned substantially by 59 weeks. Pf-specific T cell responses also declined in blood by 59 weeks. To determine whether T cell responses in blood reflected responses in liver, we vaccinated nonhuman primates with PfSPZ Vaccine. Pf-specific interferon-γ-producing CD8 T cells were present at ∼100-fold higher frequencies in liver than in blood. Our findings suggest that PfSPZ Vaccine conferred durable protection to malaria through long-lived tissue-resident T cells and that administration of higher doses may further enhance protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Ishizuka
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Kirsten E Lyke
- Institute for Global Health, Center for Vaccine Development and Division of Malaria Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Adam DeZure
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Andrea A Berry
- Institute for Global Health, Center for Vaccine Development and Division of Malaria Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Floreliz H Mendoza
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Mary E Enama
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Ingelise J Gordon
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Lee-Jah Chang
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Uzma N Sarwar
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Kathryn L Zephir
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - LaSonji A Holman
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - MingLin Li
- Sanaria Inc., Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Protein Potential, LLC, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Tao Li
- Sanaria Inc., Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Richard E Stafford
- Sanaria Inc., Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Protein Potential, LLC, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Natasha K C
- Sanaria Inc., Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Protein Potential, LLC, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Hope DeCederfelt
- Pharmaceutical Development Section, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Sarah H Plummer
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Cynthia S Hendel
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Laura Novik
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Pamela J M Costner
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Jamie G Saunders
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Matthew B Laurens
- Institute for Global Health, Center for Vaccine Development and Division of Malaria Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Christopher V Plowe
- Institute for Global Health, Center for Vaccine Development and Division of Malaria Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Barbara Flynn
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - William R Whalen
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - J P Todd
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Jay Noor
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Srinivas Rao
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Kailan Sierra-Davidson
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Geoffrey M Lynn
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Judith E Epstein
- Naval Medical Research Center (NMRC), Malaria Department, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Margaret A Kemp
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Gary A Fahle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | - Brandon K Sack
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Silas A Davidson
- Entomology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Lindsey S Garver
- Entomology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Niklas K Björkström
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martha C Nason
- Biostatistics Research Branch, Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Barney S Graham
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Mario Roederer
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - B Kim Lee Sim
- Sanaria Inc., Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Protein Potential, LLC, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Julie E Ledgerwood
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
| | - Robert A Seder
- Vaccine Research Center (VRC), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda (NIH), Maryland, USA
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6
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Zhou C, Chen X, Zhang Q, Wang J, Wu MX. Laser mimicking mosquito bites for skin delivery of malaria sporozoite vaccines. J Control Release 2015; 204:30-7. [PMID: 25725360 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Immunization with radiation-attenuated sporozoites (RAS) via mosquito bites has been shown to induce sterile immunity against malaria in humans, but this route of vaccination is neither practical nor ethical. The importance of delivering RAS to the liver through circulation in eliciting immunity against this parasite has been recently verified by human studies showing that high-level protection was achieved only by intravenous (IV) administration of RAS, not by intradermal (ID) or subcutaneous (SC) vaccination. Here, we report in a murine model that ID inoculation of RAS into laser-illuminated skin confers immune protection against malarial infection almost as effectively as IV immunization. Brief illumination of the inoculation site with a low power 532 nm Nd:YAG laser enhanced the permeability of the capillary beneath the skin, owing to hemoglobin-specific absorbance of the light. The increased blood vessel permeability appeared to facilitate an association of RAS with blood vessel walls by an as-yet-unknown mechanism, ultimately promoting a 7-fold increase in RAS entering circulation and reaching the liver over ID administration. Accordingly, ID immunization of RAS at a laser-treated site stimulated much stronger sporozoite-specific antibody and CD8(+)IFN-γ(+) T cell responses than ID vaccination and provided nearly full protection against malarial infection, whereas ID immunization alone was ineffective. This novel, safe, and convenient strategy to augment efficacy of ID sporozoite-based vaccines warrants further investigation in large animals and in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Zhou
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Xinyuan Chen
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Qi Zhang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Ji Wang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Mei X Wu
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States; Affiliated faculty member of the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02115, United States.
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7
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Vanderberg JP. Imaging mosquito transmission of Plasmodium sporozoites into the mammalian host: immunological implications. Parasitol Int 2013; 63:150-64. [PMID: 24060541 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2013.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The malaria infection is initiated in mammals by injection of the sporozoite stage of the parasite through the bite of Plasmodium-infected, female Anopheles mosquitoes. Sporozoites are injected into extravascular portions of the skin while the mosquito is probing for a blood source. Sporozoite gliding motility allows them to locate and penetrate blood vessels of the dermis or subcutaneous tissues; once in the blood, they reach the liver, within which they continue their development. Some of the injected parasites invade dermal lymph vessels and travel to the proximal draining lymphatic node, where they interact with host immunocytes. The host responds to viable or attenuated sporozoites with antibodies directed against the immunodominant circumsporozoite protein (CSP), as well as against other sporozoite proteins. These CSP antibodies can inhibit the numbers of sporozoites injected by mosquitoes and the motility of those injected into the skin. This first phase of the immune response is followed by cell-mediated immunity involving CD8 T-cells directed against the developing liver stage of the parasite. This review discusses the early history of imaging studies, and focuses on the role that imaging has played in enabling a better understanding of both the induction and effector functions of the immune responses against sporozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome P Vanderberg
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, 341 E 25th Street, New York, NY 10010, USA.
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8
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Ploemen IH, Chakravarty S, van Gemert GJJ, Annoura T, Khan SM, Janse CJ, Hermsen CC, Hoffman SL, Sauerwein RW. Plasmodium liver load following parenteral sporozoite administration in rodents. Vaccine 2012; 31:3410-6. [PMID: 23063834 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
One of the bottlenecks in the development of a whole sporozoite malaria vaccine is the route and method of sporozoite administration. Immunization and challenge of human volunteers by mosquito bites is effective, but cannot be used as a vaccine. Intravenous immunization with sporozoites is effective in rodents and non-human primates, and being studied in humans, but is not yet used for licensed vaccines for infectious diseases. Intradermal and subcutaneous immunization regimens show a strong decrease in protective efficacy, which in rodents, is associated with a decreased degree of parasite liver infection during immunization. The objective of this study was to explore alternative routes of sporozoite administration to increase efficiency of liver infection. Using in vivo imaging, we found that IM injection of sporozoites resulted in a greater parasite liver load compared to ID and SC injection. The use of small inoculation volumes and multiple injections further increased the subsequent liver load. These observations were corroborated in a Plasmodium yoelii model using cryopreserved sporozoites administered ID. Our findings provide a rationale for the design of clinical trials to optimize needle and syringe administration of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo H Ploemen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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9
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Guilbride DL, Guilbride PD, Gawlinski P. Malaria's deadly secret: a skin stage. Trends Parasitol 2012; 28:142-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Revised: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Butler NS, Schmidt NW, Vaughan AM, Aly AS, Kappe SHI, Harty JT. Superior antimalarial immunity after vaccination with late liver stage-arresting genetically attenuated parasites. Cell Host Microbe 2011; 9:451-62. [PMID: 21669394 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Revised: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 05/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
While subunit vaccines have shown partial efficacy in clinical trials, radiation-attenuated sporozoites (RAS) remain the "gold standard" for sterilizing protection against Plasmodium infection in human vaccinees. The variability in immunogenicity and replication introduced by the extensive, random DNA damage necessary to generate RAS could be overcome by genetically attenuated parasites (GAP) designed via gene deletion to arrest at defined points during liver-stage development. Here, we demonstrate the principle that late liver stage-arresting GAP induce larger and broader CD8 T cell responses that provide superior protection in inbred and outbred mice compared to RAS or early-arresting GAP immunizations. Late liver stage-arresting GAP also engender high levels of cross-stage and cross-species protection and complete protection when administered by translationally relevant intradermal or subcutaneous routes. Collectively, our results underscore the potential utility of late liver stage-arresting GAP as broadly protective next-generation live-attenuated malaria vaccines and support their potential as a powerful model for identifying antigens to generate cross-stage protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah S Butler
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, 3-512 Bowen Science Building, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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11
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Voza T, Kebaier C, Vanderberg JP. Intradermal immunization of mice with radiation-attenuated sporozoites of Plasmodium yoelii induces effective protective immunity. Malar J 2010; 9:362. [PMID: 21159170 PMCID: PMC3014973 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-9-362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intravenous injection of mice with attenuated Plasmodium berghei sporozoites induces sterile immunity to challenge with viable sporozoites. Non-intravenous routes have been reported to yield poor immunity. Because intravenous immunization has been considered to be unacceptable for large scale vaccination of humans, assessment was made of the results of intradermal immunization of mice with Plasmodium yoelii, a rodent malaria parasite whose infectivity resembles that of human malaria. METHODS Mice were immunized with two injections of isolated, radiation-attenuated P. yoelii sporozoites, either by intravenous (IV) or intradermal (ID) inoculation. In an attempt to enhance protective immunogenicity of ID-injections, one group of experimental mice received topical application of an adjuvant, Imiquimod, while another group had their injections accompanied by local "tape-stripping" of the skin, a procedure known to disrupt the stratum corneum and activate local immunocytes. Challenge of immunized and non-immunized control mice was by bite of sporozoite-infected mosquitoes. Degree of protection among the various groups of mice was determined by microscopic examination of stained blood smears. Statistical significance of protection was determined by a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test. RESULTS Two intravenous immunizations produced 94% protection to mosquito bite challenge; intradermal immunization produced 78% protection, while intradermal immunization accompanied by "tape-stripping" produced 94% protection. There were no statistically significant differences in degree of protective immunity between immunizations done by intravenous versus intradermal injection. CONCLUSIONS The use of a sub-microlitre syringe for intradermal injections yielded excellent protective immunity. ID-immunization with large numbers of radiation-attenuated P. yoelii sporozoites led to levels of protective immunity comparable to those achieved by IV-immunization. It remains to be determined whether an adjuvant treatment can be found to substantially reduce the numbers of attenuated sporozoites required to achieve a strong protective immunity with as few doses as possible for possible extension to immunization of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Voza
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, 341 East 25th Street, New York, NY 10010, USA
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Guilbride DL, Gawlinski P, Guilbride PDL. Why functional pre-erythrocytic and bloodstage malaria vaccines fail: a meta-analysis of fully protective immunizations and novel immunological model. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10685. [PMID: 20502667 PMCID: PMC2873430 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 04/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clinically protective malaria vaccines consistently fail to protect adults and children in endemic settings, and at best only partially protect infants. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We identify and evaluate 1916 immunization studies between 1965-February 2010, and exclude partially or nonprotective results to find 177 completely protective immunization experiments. Detailed reexamination reveals an unexpectedly mundane basis for selective vaccine failure: live malaria parasites in the skin inhibit vaccine function. We next show published molecular and cellular data support a testable, novel model where parasite-host interactions in the skin induce malaria-specific regulatory T cells, and subvert early antigen-specific immunity to parasite-specific immunotolerance. This ensures infection and tolerance to reinfection. Exposure to Plasmodium-infected mosquito bites therefore systematically triggers immunosuppression of endemic vaccine-elicited responses. The extensive vaccine trial data solidly substantiate this model experimentally. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We conclude skinstage-initiated immunosuppression, unassociated with bloodstage parasites, systematically blocks vaccine function in the field. Our model exposes novel molecular and procedural strategies to significantly and quickly increase protective efficacy in both pipeline and currently ineffective malaria vaccines, and forces fundamental reassessment of central precepts determining vaccine development. This has major implications for accelerated local eliminations of malaria, and significantly increases potential for eradication.
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Neither mosquito saliva nor immunity to saliva has a detectable effect on the infectivity of Plasmodium sporozoites injected into mice. Infect Immun 2009; 78:545-51. [PMID: 19884338 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00807-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria infection is initiated when a female Anopheles mosquito probing for blood injects saliva, together with sporozoites, into the skin of its mammalian host. Prior studies had suggested that saliva may enhance sporozoite infectivity. Using rodent malaria models (Plasmodium berghei and P. yoelii), we were unable to show that saliva had any detectable effect on sporozoite infectivity. This is encouraging for plans to immunize humans with washed, attenuated P. falciparum sporozoites because many individuals develop cutaneous, hypersensitivity reactions to mosquito saliva after repeated exposure. If washed sporozoites have no appreciable loss of infectivity, they likely do not have decreased immunogenicity; thus, vaccinees are unlikely to develop cutaneous reactions against mosquito saliva during attempted immunization with such sporozoites. Earlier studies also suggested that repeated prior exposure to mosquito saliva reduces infectivity of sporozoites injected by mosquitoes into sensitized hosts. However, our own studies show that prior exposure of mice to saliva had no detectable effect on numbers of sporozoites delivered by infected mosquitoes, the rate of disappearance of these sporozoites from the skin or infectivity of the sporozoites. Under natural conditions, sporozoites are delivered both to individuals who may exhibit cutaneous hypersensitivity to mosquito bite and to others who may have not yet developed such reactivity. It was tempting to hypothesize that differences in responsiveness to mosquito bite by different individuals might modulate the infectivity of sporozoites delivered into a milieu of changes induced by cutaneous hypersensitivity. Our results with rodent malaria models, however, were unable to support such a hypothesis.
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Merozoite vaccination of rhesus monkeys against plasmodium knowlesi malaria; immunity to sporozoite (mosquito-transmitted) challenge. Parasitology 2009. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000047685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Five normal rhesus monkeys were infected with Plasmodium knowlesi sporozoites (A-strain); two developed rapidly fatal malaria and three chrinic relapsing infections. Vaccination with P. knowlesi (W-strain) merozoites (unmodified or formol-treated and freeze-dried) in Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) did not inhibit pre-erythrocytic parasite development after challenge with A-strain sporozoites. However, the subsequent blood-stage infection was terminated in nine out of ten vaccinated monkeys even though the challenge strain was different form that used for vaccination. The degree of parasitaemia (0·01–0·70 %) and brevity of infection (1–12 days) in six animals vaccinated with untreated merzoites was similar to that observed after direct challenge with blood-stage parasites. Monkeys were equally resistant to sporozoite challenge given as the post-vaccination infection or administered 6 months after blood challenge. These results are discussed in relation to the development of a human malaria vaccine.
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Douradinha B, van Dijk MR, Ataide R, van Gemert GJ, Thompson J, Franetich JF, Mazier D, Luty AJF, Sauerwein R, Janse CJ, Waters AP, Mota MM. Genetically attenuated P36p-deficient Plasmodium berghei sporozoites confer long-lasting and partial cross-species protection. Int J Parasitol 2007; 37:1511-9. [PMID: 17604034 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Revised: 04/18/2007] [Accepted: 05/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Immunisation with live, radiation-attenuated sporozoites (RAS) or genetically attenuated sporozoites (GAS) of rodent plasmodial parasites protects against subsequent challenge infections. We recently showed that immunisation with Plasmodium berghei GAS that lack the microneme protein P36p protects mice for a period of up to 4 months. Here, we show that the period of full protection induced by p36p(-)-sporozoites lasts 12 and 18 months in C57Bl6 and BALB/c mice, respectively. Full protection is also achieved with three doses of only 1000 p36p(-) (but not RAS) sporozoites. Subcutaneous, intradermal or intramuscular routes of administration also lead to partial protection. In addition, immunisation with either P. berghei RAS- or, to a lesser extent, p36p(-)-sporozoites inhibits parasite intrahepatic development in mice challenged with Plasmodium yoelii sporozoites. Since naturally acquired malaria infections or subunit-based vaccines only induce short-term immune responses, the protection conferred by immunisation with p36p(-)-sporozoites described here further emphasises the potential of GAS as a vaccination strategy for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Douradinha
- Unidade Malaria, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
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Foley DA, Vanderberg JP. Plasmodium berghei: transmission by intraperitoneal inoculation of immature exoerythrocytic schizonts from rats into rats, mice, and hamsters. Exp Parasitol 1977; 43:69-81. [PMID: 330191 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(77)90009-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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