Effects of four types of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles with different nanocrystal morphologies and sizes on apoptosis in rat osteoblasts

In Situ Construction of Morphologically Different Hydroxyapatite-Mineralized Structures on a Three-Dimensional Bionic Chitin Scaffold

Slow healing at the tendon-bone interface is a prominent factor in the failure of tendon repair surgeries. The development of functional biomaterials with 3D gradient structures is urgently needed to improve tendon-bone integration. The crystalline form of hydroxyapatite (HAP) has a crucial impact on cell behavior, which directly influences protein adsorption, such as bone morphogenetic protein 2, the adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation with cells. This work aimed to generate gradient mineral structures in situ by stabilizing calcium and phosphate ions using a polymer-induced liquid precursor process. To regulate the crystalline growth of HAP at the interface of β-chitin, this work made use of the surface properties of the organic matrix found in cuttlefish bone. These techniques allowed us to prepare an organic-inorganic composite gradient scaffold comprising plate-like HAP mineralized in situ on the surface of the scaffold and fibrous HAP in the scaffold's interior. Organic-inorganic composite gradient materials are anticipated for use in tendon-bone healing produced via the in situ construction of gradient-distributed HAP mineralization layers having varying crystalline morphologies on chitin scaffolds that possess a three-dimensional bionic structure.

Morphologically different hydroxyapatite nanoparticles exert differential genotoxic effects in Drosophila

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) occurs naturally in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and constitutes the hard structures in many organisms. Since synthetic nano-sized HAP (HAP-NPs) are used in orthopedic applications and for heavy metal remediation in aquatic and terrestrial media, both environment and humans are exposed to them. Due to the concerns about their potential hazards, the genotoxic effects that round/rod forms of HAP-NPs were investigated in Drosophila using the wing-spot and the comet assays. Furthermore, caspase activities were evaluated to examine the activation of cell death pathways. As a novelty, the expression of 36 genes involved in DNA repair was investigated, as a tool to indirectly determine DNA damage induction. Obtained sizes were 35-60 nm (roundHAP-NPs) and 45-90 nm (rodHAP-NPs) with a low Zeta-potential (-1.65 and 0.37 mV, respectively). Genotoxicity was detected in the wing-spot (round form), and in the comet assay (round and rod-like HA-NPs). In addition, increased expression of Caspases 3/7, 8, and 9 activities were observed. For both HAP forms, increased changes in the expression were observed for mismatch repair genes, while decreased expression was observed for genes involved in ATM, ATR, and cell cycle pathways. The observed changes in the repair pathways would reinforce the view that HAP-NPs have genotoxic potential, although more markedly in the round form. Thus, the environmental presence of engineered nanoparticles, including HAPs, raises concerns about potential effects on human health. It is essential that the effects of their use are carefully assessed and monitored to ensure safety and to mitigate any potential adverse effects.

Size- and Dose-Dependent Body-Wide Organ Transcriptomic Responses to Calcium Phosphate Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials are widely used in clinical practice. There are potential risks of body-wide infiltration due to their small size; however, the body-wide reliable risk assessment of nanoparticle infiltration is not fully studied and established. In this study, we demonstrated the size- and dose-dependent body-wide organ transcriptomic responses to calcium phosphate nanomaterials in vivo. In a mice model, a calcium phosphate nanocluster (amorphous calcium phosphate, ACP, ∼1 nm in diameter) and its crystallization product (ACP-M, ∼10 nm in diameter) in a series of doses was administrated systematically; multiorgan transcriptomics were then performed with tissues of heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and brain to investigate the systematic effect of dose and size of nanomaterials on the whole body. The results presented gene expression trajectories correlated with the dose of the nanomaterials and tissue-specific risk effects in all detected tissues. For the dose-dependent tissue-specific risk effects, lung tissue exhibited the most significant risk signatures related to apoptosis, cell proliferation, and cell stress. The spleen showed the second most significant risk signatures associated with immune response and DNA damage. For the size-dependent tissue-specific risk effects, ACP nanomaterials could increase most of the tissue-specific risk effects of nanomaterials in multiple organs than larger calcium phosphate nanoparticles. Finally, we used the size- and dose-dependent body-wide organ transcriptomic responses/risks to nanomaterials as the standards and built up a risk prediction model to evaluate the risk of the local nanomaterials delivery. Thus, our findings could provide a size- and dose- dependent risk assessment scale of nanoparticles in the transcriptomic level. It could be useful for risk assessment of nanomaterials in the future.

Bone on-a-chip: a 3D dendritic network in a screening platform for osteocyte-targeted drugs

Age-related musculoskeletal disorders, including osteoporosis, are frequent and associated with long lasting morbidity, in turn significantly impacting on healthcare system sustainability. There is therefore a compelling need to develop reliable preclinical models of disease and drug screening to validate novel drugs possibly on a personalized basis, without the need ofin vivoassay. In the context of bone tissue, although the osteocyte (Oc) network is a well-recognized therapeutic target, currentin vitropreclinical models are unable to mimic its physiologically relevant and highly complex structure. To this purpose, several features are needed, including an osteomimetic extracellular matrix, dynamic perfusion, and mechanical cues (e.g. shear stress) combined with a three-dimensional (3D) culture of Oc. Here we describe, for the first time, a high throughput microfluidic platform based on 96-miniaturized chips for large-scale preclinical evaluation to predict drug efficacy. We bioengineered a commercial microfluidic device that allows real-time visualization and equipped with multi-chips by the development and injection of a highly stiff bone-like 3D matrix, made of a blend of collagen-enriched natural hydrogels loaded with hydroxyapatite nanocrystals. The microchannel, filled with the ostemimetic matrix and Oc, is subjected to passive perfusion and shear stress. We used scanning electron microscopy for preliminary material characterization. Confocal microscopy and fluorescent microbeads were used after material injection into the microchannels to detect volume changes and the distribution of cell-sized objects within the hydrogel. The formation of a 3D dendritic network of Oc was monitored by measuring cell viability, evaluating phenotyping markers (connexin43, integrin alpha V/CD51, sclerostin), quantification of dendrites, and responsiveness to an anabolic drug. The platform is expected to accelerate the development of new drug aimed at modulating the survival and function of osteocytes.

Recent advances in bioactive nanocrystal-stabilized Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, characterization, and biological assessment

Numerous literatures have shown the advantages of Pickering emulsion (PE) for the delivery of bioactive ingredients in the fields of food, medicine, and cosmetics, among others. On this basis, the multi-loading mode of bioactives (internal phase encapsulation and/or loading at the interface) in small molecular bioactives nanocrystal-stabilized PE (BNC-PE) enables them higher loading efficiencies, controlled release, and synergistic or superimposed effects. Therefore, BNC-PE offers an efficacious delivery system. In this review, we briefly summarize BNC-PE fabrication and characterization, with a focus on the processes of possible evolution and absorption of differentially applied BNC-PE when interacting with the body. In addition, methods of monitoring changes and absorption of BNC-PE in vivo, from the nanomaterial perspective, are also introduced. The purpose of this review is to provide an accessible and comprehensive methodology for the characterization and evaluation of BNC-PE after formulation and preparation, especially in relation to biological assessment and detailed mechanisms throughout the absorption process of BNC-PE in vivo.

Functionalized calcium phosphate nanoparticles to direct osteoprotegerin to bone lesion sites in a medaka (Oryzias latipes) osteoporosis model

Calcium phosphate (CaP) is the inorganic part of hard tissues, such as bone, teeth and tendons, and has a high biocompatibility and good biodegradability. Therefore, CaP nanoparticles functionalized with DNA encoding bone anabolic factors are promising carrier-systems for future therapeutic development. Here, we analysed CaP nanoparticles in a genetically modified medaka fish model, where osteoporosis-like lesions can be induced by transgenic expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (Rankl). Rankl-transgenic medaka were used to visualize and understand effects of microinjected functionalized CaP nanoparticles during modulation of osteoclast activity in vivo. For this, we synthetized multi-shell CaP nanoparticles by rapid precipitation of calcium lactate and ammonium hydrogen phosphate followed by the addition of plasmid DNA encoding the osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor osteoprotegerin-b (Opgb). An additional layer of poly(ethyleneimine) was added to enhance cellular uptake. Integrity of the synthesized nanoparticles was confirmed by dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Fluorescently labelled CaP nanoparticles were microinjected into the heart, trunk muscle or caudal fins of Rankl-transgenic medaka embryos that expressed fluorescent reporters in various bone cell types. Confocal time-lapse imaging revealed a uniform distribution of CaP nanoparticles in injected tissues and showed that nanoparticles were efficiently taken up by macrophages that subsequently differentiated into bone-resorbing osteoclasts. After Rankl induction, fish injected with Opg-functionalized nanoparticles showed delayed or absent degradation of mineralized matrix, i.e. a lower incidence of osteoporosis-like phenotypes. This is proof of principle that CaP nanoparticles can be used as carriers to efficiently deliver modulatory compounds to osteoclasts and block their activity.

Biomaterial-assisted tumor therapy: A brief review of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles and its composites used in bone tumors therapy

Malignant bone tumors can inflict significant damage to affected bones, leaving patients to contend with issues like residual tumor cells, bone defects, and bacterial infections post-surgery. However, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (nHAp), the principal inorganic constituent of natural bone, possess numerous advantages such as high biocompatibility, bone conduction ability, and a large surface area. Moreover, nHAp's nanoscale particle size enables it to impede the growth of various tumor cells via diverse pathways. This article presents a comprehensive review of relevant literature spanning the past 2 decades concerning nHAp and bone tumors. The primary goal is to explore the mechanisms responsible for nHAp's ability to hinder tumor initiation and progression, as well as to investigate the potential of integrating other drugs and components for bone tumor diagnosis and treatment. Lastly, the article discusses future prospects for the development of hydroxyapatite materials as a promising modality for tumor therapy.

A Selective Reduction of Osteosarcoma by Mitochondrial Apoptosis Using Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles

Background

In recent years, using hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HANPs) for tumor therapy attracted increasing attention because HANPs were found to selectively suppress the growth of tumor cells but exhibit ignorable toxicity to normal cells.

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the capacities of HANPs with different morphologies and particle sizes against two kinds of osteosarcoma (OS) cells, human OS 143B cells and rat OS UMR106 cells.

Methods

Six kinds of HANPs with different morphologies and particle sizes were prepared by wet chemical method. Then, the antitumor effect of these nanoparticles was characterized by means of in vitro cell experiments and in vivo tumor-bearing mice model. The underlying antitumor mechanism involving mitochondrial apoptosis was also investigated by analysis of intracellular calcium, expression of apoptosis-related genes, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the endocytosis efficiency of the particles in tumor cells.

Results

Both in vitro cell experiments and in vivo mice model evaluation revealed the anti-OS performance of HANPs depended on the concentration, morphology, and particle size of the nanoparticles, as well as the OS cell lines. Among the six HANPs, rod-like HANPs (R-HANPs) showed the best inhibitory activity on 143B cells, while needle-like HANPs (N-HANPs) inhibited the growth of UMR106 cells most efficiently. We further demonstrated that HANPs induced mitochondrial apoptosis by selectively raising intracellular Ca²⁺ and the gene expression levels of mitochondrial apoptosis-related molecules, and depolarizing mitochondrial membrane potential in tumor cells but not in MC3T3-E1, a mouse pre-osteoblast line. Additionally, the anti-OS activity of HANPs also linked with the endocytosis efficiency of the particles in the tumor cells, and their ability to drive oxidative damage and immunogenic cell death (ICD).

Conclusion

The current study provides an effective strategy for OS therapy where the effectiveness was associated with the particle morphology and cell line.

The Osteoinductivity of Calcium Phosphate-Based Biomaterials: A Tight Interaction With Bone Healing

Calcium phosphate (CaP)-based bioceramics are the most widely used synthetic biomaterials for reconstructing damaged bone. Accompanied by bone healing process, implanted materials are gradually degraded while bone ultimately returns to its original geometry and function. In this progress report, we reviewed the complex and tight relationship between the bone healing response and CaP-based biomaterials, with the emphasis on the in vivo degradation mechanisms of such material and their osteoinductive properties mediated by immune responses, osteoclastogenesis and osteoblasts. A deep understanding of the interaction between biological healing process and biomaterials will optimize the design of CaP-based biomaterials, and further translate into effective strategies for biomaterials customization.

Continuous Production of Highly Tuned Silk/Calcium-Based Composites: Exploring New Pathways for Skin Regeneration

Calcium plays an important role in barrier function repair and skin homeostasis. In particular, calcium phosphates (CaPs) are well established materials for biomedical engineering due to their biocompatibility. To generate biomaterials with a more complete set of biological properties, previously discarded silk sericin (SS) has been recovered and used as a template to grow CaPs. Crucial characteristics for skin applications, such as antibacterial activity, can be further enhanced by doping CaPs with cerium (Ce) ions. The effectiveness of cell attachment and growth on the materials highly depends on their morphology, particle size distribution, and chemical composition. These characteristics can be tailored through the application of oscillatory flow technology, which provides precise mixing control of the reaction medium. Thus, in the present work, CaP/SS and CaP/SS/Ce particles were fabricated for the first time using a modular oscillatory flow plate reactor (MOFPR) in a continuous mode. Furthermore, the biological behavior of both these composites and of previously produced pure CaPs was assessed using human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). It was demonstrated that both CaP based with plate-shaped nanoparticles and CaP-SS-based composites significantly improved cell viability and proliferation over time. The results obtained represent a first step towards the reinvention of CaPs for skin engineering.

Stimulation of Metabolic Activity and Cell Differentiation in Osteoblastic and Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells by a Nanohydroxyapatite Paste Bone Graft Substitute

Advances in nanotechnology have been exploited to develop new biomaterials including nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite (nHA) with physical properties close to those of natural bone mineral. While clinical data are encouraging, relatively little is understood regarding bone cells’ interactions with synthetic graft substitutes based on this technology. The aim of this research was therefore to investigate the in vitro response of both osteoblast cell lines and primary osteoblasts to an nHA paste. Cellular metabolic activity was assessed using the cell viability reagent PrestoBlue and quantitative, real-time PCR was used to determine gene expression related to osteogenic differentiation. A potential role of calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in the response of osteoblastic cells to nHA was also investigated. Indirect contact of the nHA paste with human osteoblastic cells (Saos-2, MG63, primary osteoblasts) and human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells enhanced the cell metabolic activity. The nHA paste also stimulated gene expression of runt-related transcription factor 2, collagen 1, alkaline phosphatase, and osteocalcin, thereby indicating an osteogenic response. CaSR was not involved in nHA paste-induced increases in cellular metabolic activity. This investigation demonstrated that the nHA paste has osteogenic properties that contribute to clinical efficacy when employed as an injectable bone graft substitute.

Calcium phosphate and silicate-based nanoparticles: history and emerging trends

Bulk calcium phosphates and silicate-based bioglasses have been extensively studied since the early 1970s due to their unique capacity to bind to host bone, which led to their clinical translation and commercialization in the 1980s. Since the mid-1990s, researchers have synthesized nanoscale calcium phosphate and silicate-based particles of increased specific surface area, chemical reactivity and solubility which offer specific advantages as compared to their bulk counterparts. This review provides a critical perspective on the history and emerging trends of these two classes of ceramic nanoparticles. Their synthesis and functional properties in terms of particle composition, size, shape, charge, dispersion, and toxicity are discussed as a function of relevant processing parameters. Specifically, emerging trends such as the influence of ion doping and mesoporosity on the biological and pharmaceutical performance of these nanoparticles are reviewed in more detail. Finally, a broad comparative overview is provided on the physicochemical properties and applicability of calcium phosphate and silicate-based nanoparticles within the fields of i) local delivery of therapeutic agents, ii) functionalization of biomaterial scaffolds or implant coatings, and iii) bio-imaging applications.

Coatings of hydroxyapatite–bioactive glass microparticles for adhesion to biological tissues

Adsorption of particles across interfaces has been proposed as a way to create adhesion between hydrogels and biological tissues. Here, we explore how this particle bridging approach can be applied to attach a soft polymer substrate to biological tissues, using bioresorbable and nanostructured hydroxyapatite–bioactive glass microparticles. For this, microparticles of aggregated flower-like hydroxyapatite and bioactive glass (HA–BG) were synthesized via a bioinspired route. A deposition technique using suspension spreading was developed to tune the coverage of HA–BG coatings at the surface of weakly cross-linked poly(beta-thioester) films. By varying the concentration of the deposited suspensions, we produced coatings having surface coverages ranging from 4% to 100% and coating densities ranging from 0.02 to 1.0 mg cm⁻². The progressive dissolution of these coatings within 21 days in phosphate-buffered saline was followed by SEM. Ex vivo peeling experiments on pig liver capsules demonstrated that HA–BG coatings produce an up-to-two-fold increase in adhesion energy (9.8 ± 1.5 J m⁻²) as compared to the uncoated film (4.6 ± 0.8 J m⁻²). Adhesion energy was found to increase with increasing coating density until a maximum at 0.2 mg cm⁻², well below full surface coverage, and then it decreased for larger coating densities. Using microscopy observations during and after peeling, we show that this maximum in adhesion corresponds to the appearance of particle stacks, which are easily separated and transferred onto the tissue. Such bioresorbable HA–BG coatings give the possibility of combining particle bridging with the storage and release of active compounds, therefore offering opportunities to design functional bioadhesive surfaces.

Coatings of hydroxyapatite–bioactive glass microparticles are proposed as a way to create adhesion between hydrogels and biological tissues using adsorption of the microparticles across the interface.

The Antioxidant Supplementation with Filipendula ulmaria Extract Attenuates the Systemic Adverse Effects of Nanosized Calcium Phosphates in Rats

The aim of this study was to investigate and compare the systemic toxicity of three nanosized calcium phosphates (CaPs): hydroxyapatite (HA), tricalcium phosphate (TCP), and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) in rats. Since those metallic compounds are widely used as bone replacement materials, including their use in oral surgery, CaPs were applied (per os) equimollary (17.8 mg/kg, 11 mg/kg, and 9.65 mg/kg b.w., respectively) for 30 days in order to mimic the previously described release rate from dental composites. Also, we employed antioxidant supplementation with Filipendula ulmaria (FU) extract. All the applied CaPs significantly increased serum calcium, triglycerides, LDL, and LDH, while serum levels of testosterone and LH declined, with no alterations in the liver enzymes. The evaluation of oxidative stress markers (in the liver, kidney, and testicle) showed an increase in TBARS values, while SOD and CAT activities and GSH levels were significantly reduced. The relative gene expression of Bax and Bcl-2 was shifted to proapoptotic action, accompanied by intense characteristic histological changes in architecture in all investigated organs. The toxic effects were most prominent in groups treated by ACP. FU administration attenuated the majority of nanosized CaP-induced adverse effects, thus recommending this therapeutic approach to minimize nano-CaP systemic toxicities.

The Antioxidant Supplementation with Filipendula ulmaria Extract Attenuates the Systemic Adverse Effects of Nanosized Calcium Phosphates in Rats

The aim of this study was to investigate and compare the systemic toxicity of three nanosized calcium phosphates (CaPs): hydroxyapatite (HA), tricalcium phosphate (TCP), and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) in rats. Since those metallic compounds are widely used as bone replacement materials, including their use in oral surgery, CaPs were applied (per os) equimollary (17.8 mg/kg, 11 mg/kg, and 9.65 mg/kg b.w., respectively) for 30 days in order to mimic the previously described release rate from dental composites. Also, we employed antioxidant supplementation with Filipendula ulmaria (FU) extract. All the applied CaPs significantly increased serum calcium, triglycerides, LDL, and LDH, while serum levels of testosterone and LH declined, with no alterations in the liver enzymes. The evaluation of oxidative stress markers (in the liver, kidney, and testicle) showed an increase in TBARS values, while SOD and CAT activities and GSH levels were significantly reduced. The relative gene expression of Bax and Bcl-2 was shifted to proapoptotic action, accompanied by intense characteristic histological changes in architecture in all investigated organs. The toxic effects were most prominent in groups treated by ACP. FU administration attenuated the majority of nanosized CaP-induced adverse effects, thus recommending this therapeutic approach to minimize nano-CaP systemic toxicities.

Signaling Pathway and Transcriptional Regulation in Osteoblasts during Bone Healing: Direct Involvement of Hydroxyapatite as a Biomaterial

Bone defects and periodontal disease are pathological conditions that may become neglected diseases if not treated properly. Hydroxyapatite (HA), along with tricalcium phosphate and bioglass ceramic, is a biomaterial widely applied to orthopedic and dental uses. The in vivo performance of HA is determined by the interaction between HA particles with bone cells, particularly the bone mineralizing cells osteoblasts. It has been reported that HA-induced osteoblastic differentiation by increasing the expression of osteogenic transcription factors. However, the pathway involved and the events that occur in the cell membrane have not been well understood and remain controversial. Advances in gene editing and the discovery of pharmacologic inhibitors assist researchers to better understand osteoblastic differentiation. This review summarizes the involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, Wnt, and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) in osteoblastic cellular regulation induced by HA. These advances enhance the current understanding of the molecular mechanism of HA as a biomaterial. Moreover, they provide a better strategy for the design of HA to be utilized in bone engineering.

Nanomaterial Shape Influence on Cell Behavior

Nanomaterials are proven to affect the biological activity of mammalian and microbial cells profoundly. Despite this fact, only surface chemistry, charge, and area are often linked to these phenomena. Moreover, most attention in this field is directed exclusively at nanomaterial cytotoxicity. At the same time, there is a large body of studies showing the influence of nanomaterials on cellular metabolism, proliferation, differentiation, reprogramming, gene transfer, and many other processes. Furthermore, it has been revealed that in all these cases, the shape of the nanomaterial plays a crucial role. In this paper, the mechanisms of nanomaterials shape control, approaches toward its synthesis, and the influence of nanomaterial shape on various biological activities of mammalian and microbial cells, such as proliferation, differentiation, and metabolism, as well as the prospects of this emerging field, are reviewed.

Biosensitive and antibacterial coatings on metallic material for medical applications

Metallic materials are commonly used for load-bearing implants and as internal fixation devices. It is customary to use austenitic stainless steel, especially surgical grade type 316L SS as temporary and Ti alloys as permanent implants. However, long-term, poor bonding with bone, corrosion, and release of metal ions, such as chromium and nickel occur. These ions are powerful allergens and carcinogens and their uncontrolled leaching may be avoided by surface coatings. Therefore, bioactive glasses (BGs) became a vital biomedical material, which can form a biologically active phase of hydroxycarbonate apatite on their surface when in contact with physiological fluids. To reduce the high coefficient of friction and the brittle nature of BGs, polymers are normally incorporated to avoid the high-temperature sintering/densification of ceramic-only coatings. For medical application, electrophoretic deposition (EPD) is now used for polymer (organic) and ceramic (inorganic) components at room temperature due to its simplicity, control of coating thickness and uniformity, low cost of equipment, ability to coat substrates of intricate shape and to supply thick films in composite form, high purity of deposits as well as no phase transformation during coating. Although extensive research has been conducted on polymer/inorganic composite coatings, only some studies have reported multifunctional properties, such as biological antibacterial activity, enhanced cell adhesion, controlled drug release ability, and mechanical properties. This review will focus on biodegradable coatings, including zien, chitosan, gelatin, cellulose loaded with antibacterial drugs/metallic ions/natural herbs on biostable substrates (PEEK/PMMA/PCL/PLLA layers), which have the potential of multifunctional coating for metallic implants.

Current strategies for oral delivery of BCS IV drug nanocrystals: challenges, solutions and future trends

INTRODUCTION

Oral absorption of BCS IV drug benefits little from improved dissolution. Therefore, the absorption of BCS IV drug nanocrystals 'as a whole' strategy is preferred, and structural modification of nanocrystals is required. Surface modification helps the nanocrystals maintain particle structure before drug dissolution is needed, thus enhancing the oral absorption of BCS IV drugs and promoting therapeutic effect. Here, the main challenges and solutions of oral BCS IV drug nanocrystals delivery are discussed. Moreover, strategies for nanocrystal surface modification that facilitates oral bioavailability of BCS IV drugs are highlighted, and provide insights for the innovation in oral drug delivery.

AREAS COVERED

Promising size, shape, and surface modification of nanocrystals have gained interests for application in oral BCS IV drugs.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocrystal surface modification is a feasible method to maintain the structural integrity of nanocrystals, and the introduced materials can also be modified to integrate additional functions to further facilitate the absorption of nanocrystals. It is expected that the absorption 'as a whole' strategy of nanocrystals will provide different choices for the oral BCS IV drugs.

The Beneficial Role of Filipendula ulmaria Extract in Prevention of Prodepressant Effect and Cognitive Impairment Induced by Nanoparticles of Calcium Phosphates in Rats

Mineral components of dental composites are used in many medical and dental applications, including preventive, restorative, and regenerative dentistry. To evaluate the behavioural alterations induced by nanosized particles of novel dental composites, by means of depressive level and cognitive functions, experimental groups of rats were chronically administered with nanosized hydroxyapatite (HA), tricalcium phosphate (TCP), and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) with or without simultaneous application of Filipendula ulmaria L. (FU) methanolic extract. The significant prodepressant action was observed in groups solely treated with HA and ACP. Besides, prolonged treatment with ACP also resulted in a significant decline in cognitive functions estimated in the novel object recognition test. The adverse impact of calcium phosphates on estimated behavioural functions was accompanied by increased oxidative damage and apoptotic markers in the prefrontal cortex, as well as diminished specific neurotrophin (BDNF) and gabaergic expression. The results of our investigation showed that simultaneous antioxidant supplementation with FU extract prevented calcium phosphate-induced behavioural disturbances, as well as prooxidative and apoptotic actions, with the simultaneous restoration of BDNF and GABA-A receptors in the prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that FU may be useful in the prevention of prodepressant impact and cognitive decline as early as the manifestation of calcium phosphate-induced neurotoxicity.

Effect of carbonated hydroxyapatite submicron particles size on osteoblastic differentiation

Synthetic biomimetic carbonated hydroxyapatite (CHA) has shown significant promise in bone tissue engineering for its mechanical and chemical biocompatibility and osteogenic potential. Variations in the size of hydroxyapatite particles have also been shown to contribute to the hydroxyapatite's osteogenic success. However, synthesizing biomimetic CHA with optimal osteogenic properties using a simple synthesis methodology to make highly reproducible, biomimetic, and osteogenic CHA has not been evaluated fully. The objective of this study was to synthesize submicron CHA particles using a nanoemulsion method. We hypothesized that by varying the synthesis technique we could control particle size while still creating highly biomimetic CHA typically produced during nanoemulsion synthesis. Furthermore, we hypothesized that 500 nm CHA particles would induce greater osteoblastic differentiation compared to larger or smaller CHA particles. X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering were used to characterize the chemical composition, shape, and size of CHA synthesized through variations in pH, temperature and stirring speed during synthesis. Manipulation of pH showed the ability to selectively tailor CHA particle size from 200-900 nm in a reproducible manner while maintaining the chemical composition. In addition, 500 nm particles elicited the most rapid increase in osteoblastic differentiation and did not decrease cell viability compared to 200 and 900 nm particles.

Is THP-1 viability affected by the crystallinity of nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatites?

In daily clinical practice, there is a notable variety of synthetic bone substitute, with various resorption rates, different chemical and structural characteristics that influence on bone regeneration and are not suitable for every clinical use. New biomaterials based on nanotechnology have been developed to be bioabsorbable as new bone is formed. This study intends to evaluate THP-1 cell viability when exposed to extracts of unsintered nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatite (cHA) microspheres processed at 5 and 37°C compared to sintered hydroxyapatite processed at 90°C. cHA shows, in previous studies, biocompatibility, and better bioabsorption rates, consequently, improve the deposition of new bone and tissue repair. The results demonstrated that the tested biomaterials did not activate inflammatory role through THP-1 cells and did not affect activated macrophages independently of their crystallinities, suggesting their safety and biocompatibility. These results are of fundamental importance for the advancement of research on smart materials, especially in what controls the effect of nanostructured cHA microspheres in the biological environment, seems to be a promising biomaterial in clinical application on regenerative medicine.

Experimental and theoretical investigations of the influences of one-dimensional hydroxyapatite nanostructures on cytocompatibility

Due to their simple crystal structures, one-dimensional hydroxyapatite (HA) nanostructures are easily to be applied to understand the fundamental concepts about the influences of HA dimensionality on physical, chemical, and biological properties. So, in this work, three typical HA one-dimensional nanostructures, HA nanotubes, HA nanowires, and HA nanospheres, were prepared, whose theoretical structures were built also. in vitro cytocompatibility test proved that, contrasting with TCPS, HA one-dimensional nanostructures had certain degree of cytotoxicity because HA nanostructures increase the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular calcium. Theoretical simulation indicated that HA nanosphere has higher intracellular ROS generation and lower ROS storage amount than HA nanowire and HA nanotube, which were the possible reasons for its stronger cytotoxicity. Among these typical one-dimensional nanostructures, owing to higher drug storage amount and sustained delivery ability, HA nanotube was more potential application in orthopedics. The tubular structure of HA nanotubes could be used as reservoirs for small molecule drugs or growth factors. The cytocompatibility of HA nanostructures can be improved obviously when they were produced into two-dimensional structures. The prepared multilayer structure can simulate lamellar structures of Harvard system and enhance the cytocompatibility of Ti substrate. Therefore, the method used in this work is a prospective method to improve the inherently bio-inert of Ti when used in hard tissue repairing.

Bio-evaluation of the role of chitosan and curcumin nanoparticles in ameliorating genotoxicity and inflammatory responses in rats' gastric tissue followed hydroxyapatite nanoparticles' oral uptake

Hydroxyapatite has been extensively used in tissue engineering due to its osteogenic potency, but its present toxicological facts are relatively insufficient. Here, the possible gastric toxicity of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles was evaluated biochemically to determine oxidant and antioxidant parameters in rats' stomach tissues. At results, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles have declined stomach antioxidant enzymes and reduced glutathione level, while an induction in lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide has been observed. Furthermore, DNA oxidation was analyzed by the suppression of toll-like receptors 2, nuclear factor-kappa B and Forkhead box P3 gene expression and also 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine level as a genotoxicity indicator. Various pro-inflammatory gene products have been identified that intercede a vital role in proliferation and apoptosis suppression, among these products: tumor suppressor p53, tumor necrosis factor-α and interliukin-6. Moreover, the hydroxyapatite-treated group revealed wide histological alterations and significant elevation in the number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive cells, which has been observed in the mucosal layer of the small intestine, and these alterations are an indication of small intestine injury, while the appearance of chitosan and curcumin nanoparticles in the combination group showed improvement in all the above parameters with inhibition of toxic-oxidant parameters and activation of antioxidant parameters.

Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles-Based Systems for RNAi Delivery: Applications in Bone Tissue Regeneration

Bone-related injury and disease constitute a significant global burden both socially and economically. Current treatments have many limitations and thus the development of new approaches for bone-related conditions is imperative. Gene therapy is an emerging approach for effective bone repair and regeneration, with notable interest in the use of RNA interference (RNAi) systems to regulate gene expression in the bone microenvironment. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles represent promising materials for use as non-viral vectors for gene therapy in bone tissue engineering applications due to their many favorable properties, including biocompatibility, osteoinductivity, osteoconductivity, and strong affinity for binding to nucleic acids. However, low transfection rates present a significant barrier to their clinical use. This article reviews the benefits of calcium phosphate nanoparticles for RNAi delivery and highlights the role of surface functionalization in increasing calcium phosphate nanoparticles stability, improving cellular uptake and increasing transfection efficiency. Currently, the underlying mechanistic principles relating to these systems and their interplay during in vivo bone formation is not wholly understood. Furthermore, the optimal microRNA targets for particular bone tissue regeneration applications are still unclear. Therefore, further research is required in order to achieve the optimal calcium phosphate nanoparticles-based systems for RNAi delivery for bone tissue regeneration.

Osteoblast response to zirconia modified-ORMOSILs

In this study, an in vitro evaluation of the human osteoblasts response to Organically Modified Silicate (ORMOSIL) biomaterials was conducted. These materials were synthetized by sol-gel process being modified with zirconia (ZrO₂) and/or Ca²⁺. The materials were immersed into phosphate buffer solution (PBS) in order to test precipitation of mimetic apatite-like on their surfaces. ORMOSILs were characterized by SEM, FT-IR and X-RD analysis. The response of osteoblast to ORMOSILs was analyzed as a measure of cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. The results showed that the addition of Ca²⁺ ions modifies the surface morphology of ORMOSILs by forming precipitates of mimetic apatite-like with cauliflower and scales morphologies. On the other hand, biological results suggest that the incorporation of zirconia to ORMOSILs increases their ability to support cell adhesion and proliferation. However, the inclusion of both zirconia and Ca²⁺ in the ORMOSILs decreases their biological compatibility by showing less cell proliferation and lower osteonectin expression, a protein related to osteoblasts. The unfavorable effect of Ca²⁺ on cell proliferation and cell viability could be due to its ability to induce the formation of mimetic apatite-like with incompatible morphology. The analysis of other proteins related to bone formation on ORMOSIL-Zr and ORMOSIL-Zr-Ca surfaces demonstrated clear expression of osteopontin and osteocalcin in cells growth. In the case of ORMOSIL-Zr, the expression of osteonectin occurred at early stages while the expression of osteopontin and osteocalcin begun at later stages, indicating a switch from an early to a mature stage being stimulated by the biomaterial. Together, these results highlight the important role of zirconia and Ca²⁺ ions in the composition of materials regulating their biocompatibility when used as scaffolds in bone regeneration.

Comprehensive In Vitro Testing of Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioceramics with Orthopedic and Dentistry Applications

Recently, a large spectrum of biomaterials emerged, with emphasis on various pure, blended, or doped calcium phosphates (CaPs). Although basic cytocompatibility testing protocols are referred by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 10993 (parts 1-22), rigorous in vitro testing using cutting-edge technologies should be carried out in order to fully understand the behavior of various biomaterials (whether in bulk or low-dimensional object form) and to better gauge their outcome when implanted. In this review, current molecular techniques are assessed for the in-depth characterization of angiogenic potential, osteogenic capability, and the modulation of oxidative stress and inflammation properties of CaPs and their cation- and/or anion-substituted derivatives. Using such techniques, mechanisms of action of these compounds can be deciphered, highlighting the signaling pathway activation, cross-talk, and modulation by microRNA expression, which in turn can safely pave the road toward a better filtering of the truly functional, application-ready innovative therapeutic bioceramic-based solutions.

Calcium phosphate powder synthesis by out-of-phase pulsed sonoelectrochemistry

High aspect ratio calcium phosphate (CaP) nanorods were achieved by out-of-phase pulsed sonoelectrodeposition from electrolytic aqueous bath composed of calcium nitrate, ammonium dihydrogenophosphate and surfactant at pH of 4.9. The nature of CaP phases was determined by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The results reveal the predominantly presence of calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyzes highlighted that the nanorods are polycristalline and have an aspect ratio up to 30.

Application of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in tumor-associated bone segmental defect

Hydroxyapatite (HA) has been widely applied in bone repair because of its superior biocompatibility. Recently, a proliferation-suppressive effect of HA nanoparticles (n-HA) against various cancer cells was reported. This study was aimed at assessing the translational value of n-HA both as a bone-regenerating material and as an antitumor agent. Inhibition of tumor growth, prevention of metastasis, and enhancement of the survival rate of tumor-bearing rabbits treated with n-HA were demonstrated. Activated mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in vivo was confirmed, and we observed that a stimulated immune response was involved in the n-HA-induced antitumor effect. A porous titanium scaffold loaded with n-HA was fabricated and implanted into a critical-sized segmental bone defect in a rabbit tumor model. The n-HA-releasing scaffold not only showed a prominent effect in suppressing tumor growth and osteolytic lesion but also promoted bone regeneration. These findings provide a rationale for using n-HA in tumor-associated bone segmental defects.

The protective role of CsNPs and CurNPs against DNA damage, oxidative stress, and histopathological and immunohistochemical alterations induced by hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in male rat kidney

Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAP-NPs) are an inorganic component of natural bone and are mainly used in the tissue engineering field due to their bioactivity, osteoconductivity, biocompatibility, non-inflammatory, and non-toxicity properties. However, the current toxicity data for HAP-NPs regarding human health are limited, and only a few results from basic studies have been published. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the beneficial role of chitosan nanoparticles (CsNPs) and curcumin nanoparticles (CurNPs) in alleviating nephrotoxicity induced by HAP-NPs in male rats. The results showed that HAP-NPs caused a reduction in antioxidant enzymes and induced lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide production and DNA oxidation. Moreover, HAP-NP administration was associated with intense histologic changes in kidney architecture and immunoreactivity to proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). However, the presence of CsNPs and/or CurNPs along with HAP-NPs reduced the levels of oxidative stress through improving the activities of antioxidant enzymes. Also, the rats administered the nanoparticles showed a moderate improvement in glomerular damage which matched that of the control group and showed mild positive reactions to PCNA-ir in glomeruli and renal tubules in the cortical and medullary portions. These novel insights confirm that the presence of chitosan and curcumin in nanoforms has powerful biological effects with enhanced bioactivity and bioavailability phenomena compared to their microphase counterparts. Also, they were able to ameliorate the nephrotoxicity induced by HAP-NPs.

Adhesion and Proliferation of Osteoblastic Cells on Hydroxyapatite-dispersed Ti-based Composite Plate

BACKGROUND/AIM

Biocompatibility of a novel and more stable hydroxyapatite (HA)-dispersed titanium (Ti)-based composite was investigated, using the mouse osteoblast precursor cell line MC3T3-E1.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Surface of powders and plates was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Distribution of calcium and phosphorus on the surface of the composite was evaluated by an electron beam microanalyzer. Crystal structure was analyzed by X-ray diffractometer. Cell viability was determined by WST-1 assay.

RESULTS

HA was stable against the compressive force, shearing stress and sintering heat at 800°C, but it slightly decomposed at 1100°C. With the increase of HA in the composites, the adhesion/proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells was reduced. The growth inhibition by HA does not seem to be due to materials released from the plate, but rather to the contact to the surface of the plate. Sintering of the HA plate at 1100°C increased the number of attached viable cells. On the other hand, culturing on the synthesized calcium phosphate (apatite containing carbonic acid) increased the number of attached cells to a greater extent.

CONCLUSION

HA inhibits the growth of osteoblastic cells, but sintering at 1100°C changes the surface properties of the composite so as to stimulate cell growth.

Effects of physical properties of nano-sized hydroxyapatite crystals on cellular toxicity in renal epithelial cells

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is not only a common component of most idiopathic CaOx stones, but also the core of Randall's plaque. HAP is a nest that can induce the formation of Randall's plaques and even kidney stones. We studied the toxic effects and mechanisms of four different types of nano-HAP crystals (H-Sphere, 72.5 nm × 72.5 nm; H-Needle, 37.2 nm × 162.7 nm; H-Rod, 42.3 nm × 115.3 nm; and H-Plate, 145.5 nm × 272.9 nm) on human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2). HAP crystals could cause oxidative stress that triggered a series of cell dysfunction problems, resulting in decreased cell viability, loss of cell membrane integrity, cell swelling, and cell necrosis. The toxic effect of HAP was mainly attributed to its entry into cell by endocytosis and its accumulation in the lysosomes, causing the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) to rise, the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) to decrease, the lysosomal integrity to be destroyed, and the cell cycle blocked during the G0/G1 phase. The cytotoxicity of the four kinds of HAP crystals was ranked as follows: H-Sphere > H-Needle > H-Rod > H-Plate. The cytotoxicity of each crystal was positively correlated with low absolute zeta potential, conduciveness to internalized morphology, large specific surface area and aspect ratio, and small particle size. These results indicated that nano-HAP could damage HK-2 cells, and the physical properties of HAP crystals play a vital effect in their cytotoxicity.

Impact of crystallinity and crystal size of nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatite on pre-osteoblast in vitro biocompatibility

Nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatite (nCHA) is a promising biomaterial for bone tissue engineering due to its chemical properties, similar to those of the bone mineral phase and its enhanced in vivo bioresorption. However, the biological effects of nCHA nanoparticles on cells and tissues are not sufficiently known. This study assessed the impact of exposing pre-osteoblasts to suspensions with high doses of nCHA nanoparticles with high or low crystallinity. MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts were cultured for 1 or 7 days in a culture medium previously exposed to CHA nanoparticles for 1 day. Control groups were produced by centrifugation for removal of bigger nCHA aggregates before exposure. Interaction of nanoparticles with the culture medium drastically changed medium composition, promoting Ca, P, and protein adsorption. Transmission Electron microscopy revealed that exposed cells were able to internalize both materials, which seemed concentrated inside endosomes. No cytotoxicity was observed for both materials, regardless of centrifugation, and the exposure did not induce alterations in the release of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Morphological analysis revealed strong interactions of nCHA aggregates with cell surfaces, however without marked alterations in morphological features and cytoskeleton ultrastructure. The overall in vitro biocompatibility of nCHA materials, regardless of physicochemical characteristics such as crystallinity, encourages further studies on their clinical applications.

Characterization and influence of hydroxyapatite nanopowders on living cells

Nanomaterials, such as hydroxyapatite nanoparticles show a great promise for medical applications due to their unique properties at the nanoscale. However, there are concerns about the safety of using these materials in biological environments. Despite a great number of published studies of nanoobjects and their aggregates or agglomerates, the impact of their physicochemical properties (such as particle size, surface area, purity, details of structure and degree of agglomeration) on living cells is not yet fully understood. Significant differences in these properties, resulting from different manufacturing methods, are yet another problem to be taken into consideration. The aim of this work was to investigate the correlation between the properties of nanoscale hydroxyapatite from different synthesis methods and biological activity represented by the viability of four cell lines: A549, CHO, BEAS-2B and J774.1 to assess the influence of the nanoparticles on immune, reproductive and respiratory systems.

Graphene oxide induces p62/SQSTM-dependent apoptosis through the impairment of autophagic flux and lysosomal dysfunction in PC12 cells

Graphene oxide (GO), as a two-dimensional carbon nanosheet, has been extensively studied for potential biomedical applications due to its notable properties. Although a growing number of studies have investigated the adverse effects of GO nanosheets, the available toxicity data concerning GO's effect on the neuronal cells remain highly limited. In this work, we systematically investigated the toxic responses of commercially available GO on a rat pheochromocytoma-derived PC12 cell line, which was an ideal in vitro model to study the neurotoxicity of GO. GO exerted a significant toxic effect on PC12 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. GO treatments under doses of 40, 50, and 60 μg/mL triggered an autophagic response and the blockade of autophagic flux via disrupting lysosome degradation capability. Caspase 9-mediated apoptosis was also observed in GO-treated cells. Moreover, GO-induced apoptosis was relevant to the aberrant accumulation of autophagy substrate p62/SQSTM. Inhibitionofthe accumulation of autophagic substrate alleviated GO-caused apoptotic cell death. Our findings raise a concern for the putative biomedical applications of GO in the form of diagnostic and therapeutic tools, where its systematic biocompatibility should be thoroughly explored. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Graphene oxide (GO) has attracted considerable interests in biomedical fields, which also resulted in numerous safety risks to human bodies. It is urgently required to establish a paradigm for accurately evaluating their adverse effects in biological systems. This study thoroughly explored the neurotoxicity of GO in PC12 cells. We found GO triggered an increased autophagic response and the impairment of autophagic flux, which was functionally involved in cell apoptosis. Inhibitionofexcessive accumulation of autophagic cargo attenuated apoptotic cell death. Our findings highlight deep considerations on the regulation mechanism of autophagy-lysosomes-apotosis-axis, which will contribute to a better understanding of the neurotoxicity of graphene-family nanomaterials, and provide a new insight in the treatment of cancer cells at nanoscale levels.

Intracellular Interaction of Hydroxyapatite-Based Nanocrystals with Uniform Shape and Traceable Fluorescence

The intracellular interaction between osteoblasts and hydroxyapatite (HA) is of great importance for future applications of HA nanocrystals in tracing cell differentiation and bone regeneration. This research attempts to provide insight into the intracellular interaction between osteoblasts and synthetic HA nanocrystals by employing the uniform shape and fluorescence of terbium-doped HA nanocrystals jointly for the first time. When cultured for 7 days, the abundant cytoplasm of the osteoblasts could be clearly and homogeneously visualized via the green fluorescence of the internalized HA nanocrystals, which kept a uniform morphology but showed a slight size decrease and degradation; the gene expression of the osteoblasts was not obviously affected. However, on day 14, the uniform HA nanocrystals had degraded into smaller and irregular nanoparticles, and agglomeration had occurred. Meanwhile, multilayer membrane structures and vacuolization around the degraded HA particles appeared in the osteoblasts; the expression of genes largely decreased, or the genes could not be normally expressed. The results indicate that the morphology and composition change of the internalized HA nanocrystals and the microstructure change of the osteoblasts are closely related and correspond to each other. The feasible new method and insightful details will aid in future investigations of the interaction of synthetic HA nanocrystals with various cells. The results from the intracellular interaction also remind us to pay more attention to the in-depth study of HA nanoparticles used for bone repair and reconstruction.

Review of potential health risks associated with nanoscopic calcium phosphate

Calcium phosphate is applied in many products in biomedicine, but also in toothpastes and cosmetics. In some cases, it is present in nanoparticulate form, either on purpose or after degradation or mechanical abrasion. Possible concerns are related to the biological effect of such nanoparticles. A thorough literature review shows that calcium phosphate nanoparticles as such have no inherent toxicity but can lead to an increase of the intracellular calcium concentration after endosomal uptake and lysosomal degradation. However, cells are able to clear the calcium from the cytoplasm within a few hours, unless very high doses of calcium phosphate are applied. The observed cytotoxicity in some cell culture studies, mainly for unfunctionalized particles, is probably due to particle agglomeration and subsequent sedimentation onto the cell layer, leading to a very high local particle concentration, a high particle uptake, and subsequent cell death. There is no risk from an oral uptake of calcium phosphate nanoparticles due to their rapid dissolution in the stomach. The risk from dermal or mucosal uptake is very low. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles can enter the bloodstream by inhalation, but no adverse effects have been observed, except for a prolonged exposition to high particle doses. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles inside the body (e.g. after implantation or due to abrasion) do not pose a risk as they are typically resorbed and dissolved by osteoclasts and macrophages. There is no indication for a significant influence of the calcium phosphate phase or the particle shape (e.g. spherical or rod-like) on the biological response. In summary, the risk associated with an exposition to nanoparticulate calcium phosphate in doses that are usually applied in biomedicine, health care products, and cosmetics is very low and most likely not present at all.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Calcium phosphate is a well-established biomaterial. However, there are occasions when it occurs in a nanoparticulate form (e.g. as nanoparticle or as nanoparticulate bone substitution material) or after abrasion from a calcium phosphate-coated metal implant. In the light of the current discussion on the safety of nanoparticles, there have been concerns about potential adverse effects of nano-calcium phosphate, e.g. in a statement of a EU study group from 2016 about possible dangers associated with non-spherical nano-hydroxyapatite in cosmetics. In the US, there was a discussion in 2016 about the dangers of nano-calcium phosphate in babyfood. In this review, the potential exposition routes for nano-calcium phosphate are reviewed, with special emphasis on its application as biomaterial.

Antitumor Effect by Hydroxyapatite Nanospheres: Activation of Mitochondria-Dependent Apoptosis and Negative Regulation of Phosphatidylinositol-3-Kinase/Protein Kinase B Pathway

Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HA NPs) have been acknowledged for their benign biocompatibility and proliferation inhibition effect on tumor cells, attracting considerable attention for tumor therapeutics without late effects. However, unnoticeable tumor cytotoxicity of HA NPs limited the final clinical therapeutic efficacy. Herein, a two-phase synthetic approach was developed to synthesize sphere-like HA NPs by varying the conventional growth habit of HA precipitate. We present our in vitro and in vivo experimental evidence that spherical HA NPs have surprisingly high inhibitory activities against tumor cells. We demonstrate further, based on our experimental data, that the underlying cause for the death of the tumor cells is related to two concurrent pathways, the mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway and negative regulation of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PIK3/AKT) pathway. The present study indicated that HA nanospheres can be engineered as nontoxic specific inhibitors for efficient tumor therapeutics with nanobiomaterials.

Defect-related luminescent bur-like hydroxyapatite microspheres induced apoptosis of MC3T3-E1 cells by lysosomal and mitochondrial pathways

When orthopedic joints coated by hydroxyapatite (HA) were implanted in the human body, they release wear debris into the surrounding tissues. The generation and accumulation of wear particles will induce aseptic loosening. However, the potential bioeffect and mechanism of HA-coated orthopedic implants on bone cells are poorly understood. In this study, defect-related luminescent bur-like hydroxyapatite (BHA) microspheres with the average diameter of 7-9 μm which are comparable to that of the wear-debris particles from aseptically loosened HA implants or HA debris have been synthesized by hydrothermal synthesis and the MC3T3-E1 cells were set as a cells model to study the potential bioeffect and mechanism of BHA microspheres. The studies demonstrated that BHA microspheres could be taken into MC3T3-E1 cells via endocytosis involved in micropinocytosis- and clathrin-mediated endocytosis process, and exert cytotoxicity effect. BHA microspheres could induce the cell apoptosis by intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which led to not only an increase in the permeability of lysosome and release of cathepsins B, but also mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage. Our results provide novel evidence to elucidate their toxicity mechanisms and might be helpful for more reasonable applications of HA-based orthopaedic implants in the future.

2D-Black-Phosphorus-Reinforced 3D-Printed Scaffolds:A Stepwise Countermeasure for Osteosarcoma

With the ever-deeper understanding of nano-bio interactions and the development of fabrication methodologies of nanomaterials, various therapeutic platforms based on nanomaterials have been developed for next-generation oncological applications, such as osteosarcoma therapy. In this work, a black phosphorus (BP) reinforced 3D-printed scaffold is designed and prepared to provide a feasible countermeasure for the efficient localized treatment of osteosarcoma. The in situ phosphorus-driven, calcium-extracted biomineralization of the intra-scaffold BP nanosheets enables both photothermal ablation of osteosarcoma and the subsequent material-guided bone regeneration in physiological microenvironment, and in the meantime endows the scaffolds with unique physicochemical properties favoring the whole stepwise therapeutic process. Additionally, a corrugated structure analogous to Haversian canals is found on newborn cranial bone tissue of Sprague-Dawley rats, which may provide much inspiration for the future research of bone-tissue engineering.

Size- and shape-dependent effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the permeabilization of the blood-brain barrier

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) have been found to translocate into the brain by penetrating the blood-brain barrier (BBB), but it remains largely unknown how their physicochemical characteristics may impact BBB permeabilization. By testing TiO₂ particles of different shapes and various sizes, we found that: (1) small, spherical TiO₂-NPs permeabilized a BBB-like human brain microvasculature endothelial cell monolayer better than rod-like or large particles; (2) TiO₂-NPs stimulated F-actin stress fiber formation, and induced paracellular gaps and ROCK II activation. The TiO₂-NP-mediated BBB permeabilization was associated with intracellular uptake and cytoskeletal re-organization; and (3) in rats, spherical, small TiO₂-NPs significantly increased the BBB permeability and entered the brain. The TiO₂-NPs were accumulated in the brain, but no obvious pathological anomaly was observed in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Our study investigated the neurotoxicity of TiO₂-NPs, thereby providing scientific evaluation for the potential biomedical applications of TiO₂-NPs.

Nano-Hydroxyapatite Stimulation of Gene Expression Requires Fgf Receptor, Phosphate Transporter, and Erk1/2 Signaling

Hydroxyapatite (HAp) is critical to health both as the main structural material of the skeleton and storage material of calcium and phosphate. Nanosized HAp (nHAp) is naturally produced by mineralizing cells during bone formation and remodeling and is the main constituent of the skeleton. As such, HAp is currently being investigated as a therapeutic biomaterial for orthopedic and dental purposes. Recent studies have suggested that extracellular nHAp can influence osteoblast lineage commitment and cell function through changes in gene expression; however, the mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here, the cellular and molecular mechanism by which rod-shaped nHAp (10 × 100 nm) stimulates gene expression in preosteoblast bone marrow stromal cells was investigated. Electron microscopy detected a rapid and stable interaction of nHAp with the cell membrane, which correlated with a strong stimulation of the Erk1/2 signaling pathway. Results also identified the requirement of the Fgf receptor signaling and phosphate-transporters for nHAp regulated gene expression whereas a calcium-sensing receptor inhibitor had no effect. Collectively, the study uncovers novel signaling pathways and cellular events specifically stimulated by and required for the cellular response to free extracellular HAp. The results provide insight into the osteoblastic response to HAp relevant to functional mineralization and pathological calcification and could be used in the development of biomaterials for orthopedic purposes.

Probing the toxicity of nanoparticles: a unified in silico machine learning model based on perturbation theory

Nanoparticles (NPs) are part of our daily life, having a wide range of applications in engineering, physics, chemistry, and biomedicine. However, there are serious concerns regarding the harmful effects that NPs can cause to the different biological systems and their ecosystems. Toxicity testing is an essential step for assessing the potential risks of the NPs, but the experimental assays are often very expensive and usually too slow to flag the number of NPs that may cause adverse effects. In silico models centered on quantitative structure-activity/toxicity relationships (QSAR/QSTR) are alternative tools that have become valuable supports to risk assessment, rationalizing the search for safer NPs. In this work, we develop a unified QSTR-perturbation model based on artificial neural networks, aimed at simultaneously predicting general toxicity profiles of NPs under diverse experimental conditions. The model is derived from 54,371 NP-NP pair cases generated by applying the perturbation theory to a set of 260 unique NPs, and showed an accuracy higher than 97% in both training and validation sets. Physicochemical interpretation of the different descriptors in the model are additionally provided. The QSTR-perturbation model is then employed to predict the toxic effects of several NPs not included in the original dataset. The theoretical results obtained for this independent set are strongly consistent with the experimental evidence found in the literature, suggesting that the present QSTR-perturbation model can be viewed as a promising and reliable computational tool for probing the toxicity of NPs.

Central neurotoxicity induced by the instillation of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles through the taste nerve pathway

AIM

To explore whether nanoparticles (NPs) can be transported into the CNS via the taste nerve pathway.

MATERIALS & METHODS

ZnO and TiO₂ NPs were tongue-instilled to male Wistar rats. Toxicity was assessed by Zn/Ti biodistribution, histopathological examination, oxidative stress assay, quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR analysis, learning and memory capabilities.

RESULTS

ZnO NPs and TiO₂ NPs significantly deposited in the nerves and brain, respectively. The histopathological examination indicated a slight injury in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Ultrastructural changes and an imbalanced oxidative stress were observed. The Morris water maze results showed that the learning and memory of rats were impaired.

CONCLUSION

NPs can enter the CNS via the taste nerve translocation pathway and induce a certain adverse effect.