Hepatitis C virus-infected patients are 'spared' from the metabolic syndrome but not from insulin resistance. A comparative study of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatitis C virus-related steatosis

Metabolic complications of hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a systemic disease that is implicated in multiple extrahepatic organ dysfunction contributing to its protean manifestations. HCV is associated with diverse extrahepatic disorders including atherosclerosis, glucose and lipid metabolic disturbances, alterations in the iron metabolic pathways, and lymphoproliferative diseases over and above the traditional liver manifestations of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The orchestration between HCV major proteins and the liver-muscle-adipose axis, poses a major burden on the global health of human body organs, if not adequately addressed. The close and inseparable associations between chronic HCV infection, metabolic disease, and cardiovascular disorders are specifically important considering the increasing prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome, and their economic burden to patients, the healthcare systems, and society. Cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the interplay of these organs and tissues in health and disease are therefore of significant interest. The coexistence of metabolic disorders and chronic hepatitis C infection also enhances the progression to liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The presence of metabolic disorders is believed to influence the chronicity and virulence of HCV leading to liver disease progression. This comprehensive review highlights current knowledge on the metabolic manifestations of hepatitis C and the potential pathways in which these metabolic changes can influence the natural history of the disease.

Systematic review: chronic viral hepatitis and metabolic derangement

BACKGROUND

The liver has a critical role in the metabolism of glucose and lipids. Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection leads to a spectrum of liver disease including chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) has a rising incidence owing to an epidemic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is a liver manifestation of MetS and has become the most common cause of chronic liver disease worldwide.

AIM

To summarise the interplay among hepatitis viruses, MetS and its components.

METHODS

We searched the literature about HBV, HCV infection, MetS, fatty liver and its components from PubMed.

RESULTS

With respect to the viral replication cycle, lipids are important mediators between viral entry and hepatocyte in HCV infection, but not in HBV infection. Thus, HCV infection is inversely associated with hyperlipidaemia and lipid rebound occurs following sustained viral response induced by interferon-based therapy or direct antiviral agents. In addition, HCV infection is positively associated with insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, MetS and the risk of T2DM and atherosclerosis. In contrast, HBV infection may protect infected subjects from the development of MetS and hepatic steatosis. Accumulating evidence suggests that HBV infection is inversely associated with lipid metabolism, and exhibits no conclusive association with insulin resistance or the risk of T2DM and arteriosclerosis.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with viral hepatitis and concurrent metabolic diseases, a multidisciplinary approach should be given rather than simply antiviral treatment.

Diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance and hepatitis C virus infection: A contemporary review

AIM

To summarise the literature data on hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients concerning the prevalence of glucose abnormalities and associated risk.

METHODS

We conducted a PubMed search and selected all studies found with the key words "HCV" or "hepatitis C virus" and "diabetes" or "insulin resistance". We included only comparative studies written in English or in French, published from January 2000 to April 2015. We collected the literature data on HCV-infected patients concerning the prevalence of glucose abnormalities [diabetes mellitus (DM) and insulin resistance (IR)] and associated risk [i.e., severe liver fibrosis, response to antivirals, and the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)].

RESULTS

HCV infection is significantly associated with DM/IR compared with healthy volunteers and patients with hepatitis B virus infection. Glucose abnormalities were associated with advanced liver fibrosis, lack of sustained virologic response to interferon alfa-based treatment and with a higher risk of HCC development. As new antiviral therapies may offer a cure for HCV infection, such data should be taken into account, from a therapeutic and preventive point of view, for liver and non-liver consequences of HCV disease. The efficacy of antidiabetic treatment in improving the response to antiviral treatment and in decreasing the risk of HCC has been reported by some studies but not by others. Thus, the effects of glucose abnormalities correction in reducing liver events need further studies.

CONCLUSION

Glucose abnormalities are strongly associated with HCV infection and show a negative impact on the main liver related outcomes.

NAFLD and NASH in HCV Infection: Prevalence and Significance in Hepatic and Extrahepatic Manifestations

The aim of this paper is to review and up to date the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and their significance in both accelerating progression of HCV-related liver disease and development of HCV-associated extrahepatic diseases. The reported mean prevalence of HCV-related NAFLD was 55%, whereas NASH was reported in 4%–10% of cases. HCV genotype 3 directly induces fatty liver deposition, namely “viral steatosis” and it is associated with the highest prevalence and degree of severity, whereas, HCV non-3 genotype infection showed lower prevalence of steatosis, which is associated with metabolic factors and insulin resistance. The host’s genetic background predisposes him or her to the development of steatosis. HCV’s impairment of lipid and glucose metabolism causes fatty liver accumulation; this seems to be a viral strategy to optimize its life cycle. Irrespective of insulin resistance, HCV-associated NAFLD, in a degree-dependent manner, contributes towards accelerating the liver fibrosis progression and development of hepatocellular carcinoma by inducing liver inflammation and oxidative stress. Furthermore, NAFLD is associated with the presence of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis. In addition, HCV-related “metabolic steatosis” impairs the response rate to interferon-based treatment, whereas it seems that “viral steatosis” may harm the response rate to new oral direct antiviral agents. In conclusion, a high prevalence of NAFLD occurs in HCV infections, which is, at least in part, induced by the virus, and that NAFLD significantly impacts progression of the liver disease, therapeutic response, and some extrahepatic diseases.

FT3/FT4 ratio predicts non-alcoholic fatty liver disease independent of metabolic parameters in patients with euthyroidism and hypothyroidism

OBJECTIVE

This study was performed to evaluate the effects of metabolic parameters and thyroid dysfunction on the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

METHODS

The current study evaluated a total of 115 patients, 75 female and 40 male. Physical examination and anthropometric measurements were applied to all participants. Hypothyroidism was considered at a thyroid stimulating hormone level ≥ 4.1 mIU/L. Patients with euthyroidism and patients with hypothyroidism were compared. Abdominal ultrasonography was used to diagnose non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The participants were further compared with regard to the presence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Logistic regression modeling was performed to identify the relationship between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and independent variables, such as metabolic parameters and insulin resistance.

RESULTS

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease was identified in 69 patients. The mean waist circumference, body mass index, fasting plasma insulin, HOMA-IR (p<0.001) and FT3/FT4 ratio (p=0.01) values were significantly higher in the patients with NAFLD compared to those without it. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that FT3/FT4 ratio, waist circumference and insulin resistance were independent risk factors for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

CONCLUSION

Insulin resistance, enlarged waist circumference, elevated body mass index, higher FT3/FT4 ratio and hypertriglyceridemia are independent risk factors for NADLF, whereas hypothyroidism is not directly related to the condition.

Factors Associated with Insulin Resistance in Patients with Chronic HCV Genotype 1 Infection without Obesity or Type 2 Diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence of insulin resistance (IR) and its association with clinical parameters in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 without obesity or type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-seven HCV-infected patients admitted to the Nutrition and Hepatology Clinic were included. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney test, Fisher's exact test, and Poisson regression analysis.

RESULTS

The prevalence of IR (homeostasis model assessment [HOMA]-IR ≥ 3.0) was 37.0%. The independent predictors for IR included the following: aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 1.5 times the upper normal limit (odds ratio [PR] = 2.06, 95% CI, 1.16-3.66; PR = 2.32, 95% CI, 1.26-4.49, respectively); gamma glutamyl transferase (γGT) ≥ 85 U/L (PR = 2.09, 95% CI, 1.12-4.12); increased waist circumference (PR = 2.24, 95% CI, 1.25-4.17); increased waist : hip ratio (PR = 2.24, 95% CI, 1.11-5.17); increased body fat percentage (PR = 2.21, 95% CI, 1.01-5.79); overweight (PR = 2.54, 95% CI, 1.40-4.82); and metabolic syndrome (PR = 3.05, 95% CI, 1.69-5.44). High ALT levels and anthropometric parameters remained in the model of multivariate regression analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings showed a significantly high prevalence of insulin resistance in nondiabetic, nonobese patients with hepatitis C genotype 1. High ALT levels and anthropometric parameters were significantly associated with IR after multivariate regression analysis. Our data show the importance of monitoring IR, weight, and body composition in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Nutritional management seems to be important in the control of comorbidities related to excess weight and the enhancement of therapeutic responses.

n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation reduces insulin resistance in hepatitis C virus infected patients: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance promotes liver disease progression and may be associated with a lower response rate in treated hepatitis C virus (HCV) infected patients. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) supplementation may reduce insulin resistance. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on insulin resistance in these patients.

METHODS

In a randomised, double-blind clinical trial, 154 patients were screened. After applying inclusion criteria, 52 patients [homeostasis model assessment index of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR ≥2.5)] were randomly divided into two groups: n-3 PUFA (n = 25/6000 mg day(-1) of fish oil) or control (n = 27/6000 mg day(-1) of soybean oil). Both groups were supplemented for 12 weeks and underwent monthly nutritional consultation. Biochemical tests were performed at baseline and after intervention. Statistical analysis was performed using the Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney test for comparisons and the Wilcoxon test for paired data. Statistical package r, version 3.02 (The R Project for Statistical Computing) was used and P < 0.05 (two-tailed) was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Comparisons between groups showed that n-3 PUFA supplementation was more effective than the control for reducing HOMA-IR (P = 0.015) and serum insulin (P = 0.016). The n-3 PUFA group not only showed a significant reduction in HOMA-IR 3.8 (3.2-5.0) versus 2.4 (1.8-3.3) (P = 0.002); serum insulin 17.1 (13.8-20.6) μIU mL(-1) versus 10.9 (8.6-14.6) μIU mL(-1) (P = 0.001); and glycated haemoglobin 5.4% (5.0-5.7%) versus 5.1% (4.8-5.6%) (P = 0.011), but also presented an increase in interleukin-1 97.5 (0.0-199.8) pg mL(-1) versus 192.4 (102.2-266.8) pg mL(-1) (P = 0.003) and tumour necrosis factor 121.2 (0.0-171.3) pg mL(-1) versus 185.7 (98.0-246.9) pg mL(-1) (P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

n-3 PUFA supplementation reduces insulin resistance in genotype 1 HCV infected patients.

HIV-related metabolic comorbidities in the current ART era

Despite effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), HIV-infected individuals have residual chronic immune activation that contributes to the pathogenesis of HIV infection. This immune system dysregulation is a pathogenic state manifested by very low naïve T-cell numbers and increased terminally differentiated effector cells that generate excessive proinflammatory cytokines with limited functionality. Immune exhaustion leaves an individual at risk for accelerated aging-related diseases, including renal dysfunction, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and osteoporosis. We highlight research that clarifies the role of HIV, ART, and other factors that contribute to the development of these diseases among HIV-infected persons.

Consensus Statement of HCV Task Force of the Indian National Association for Study of the Liver (INASL). Part II: INASL Recommendations for Management of HCV in India

The estimated prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in India is between 0.5 and 1.5% with hotspots showing much higher prevalence in some areas of northeast India, in some tribal populations and in certain parts of Punjab. Genotype 3 is the most prevalent type of infection. Recent years have seen development of a large number of new molecules that are revolutionizing the treatment of hepatitis C. Some of the new directly acting agents (DAAs) like sofosbuvir have been called game-changers because they offer the prospect of interferon-free regimens for the treatment of HCV infection. These new drugs have not yet been approved in India and their cost and availability is uncertain at present. Till these drugs become available at an affordable cost, the treatment that was standard of care for the whole world before these newer drugs were approved should continue to be recommended. For India, cheaper options, which are as effective as the standard-of-care (SOC) in carefully selected patients, are also explored to bring treatment within reach of poorer patients. It may be prudent to withhold treatment at present for selected patients with genotype 1 or 4 infection and low levels of fibrosis (F1 or F2), and for patients who are non-responders to initial therapy, interferon intolerant, those with decompensated liver disease, and patients in special populations such as stable patients after liver and kidney transplantation, HIV co-infected patients and those with cirrhosis of liver.

Alterations in NK Cell Phenotype in Relation to Liver Steatosis in Children with Chronic Hepatitis C

NK cells were found to play an important role in liver fibrosis, a process commonly seen in a chronic liver disease such as chronic hepatitis C (CHC). The aim of this study was to evaluate potential differences in relation to coexisting liver steatosis in children with chronic hepatitis C. The study group consisted of 31 children with chronic hepatitis, aged 7–18 years (mean = 15 ± 2 years). Blood samples were taken prior to liver biopsy. The METAVIR scale was used for histological evaluation. Peripheral lymphocytes were subjected to monoclonal antibodies to CD56 antigen, KIRs and NKG2D antigens. Cells were assayed by flow cytometry for the ratio of positive cells and mean fluorescence intensity (MFI). Results were evaluated regarding the presence of liver steatosis. Significantly higher mean AST activity as well as higher AST-to-platelets ratio index (APRI) was observed in a group of children with coexisting liver steatosis. These children had significantly higher MFI for CD158e and lower MFI for NKG2D. All CHC patients had significantly higher MFI for NKG2D than the controls. The proportion of cells with expression of CD158i, KIR2D and APRI was found independent predictors of liver steatosis in univariate analysis and body mass index in logistic regression. The expression of NK cell receptors is altered in coexisting steatosis that may influence long-term prognosis in CHC.

Ultrasonographic quantification of hepatic-renal echogenicity difference in hepatic steatosis diagnosis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Ultrasound (US) is recommended for hepatic steatosis screening. The purpose of this study was to determine the usefulness of US hepatic-renal echo-intensity (HR) difference in the quantitative assessment of hepatic steatosis.

METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing liver biopsy were prospectively enrolled. Using US histogram technique, the mean gray level of hepatic parenchyma and right renal parenchyma at selected regions of interest were evaluated on the same day of biopsy. With steatosis assessed by histology as the reference, the diagnostic performances of HR difference in predicting the degree of steatosis was analyzed. The optimal cut-off level, diagnostic validity and post-test probability were assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 175 patients were enrolled (M/F, 103/72; mean age, 48.6 ± 11.7). There were 64 (36.5 %), 42 (24 %), 29 (16.6 %), 12 (6.9 %) and 28 (16 %) patients with steatosis of <5, 5-9, 10-19, 20-29 and ≥ 30 %, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed HR difference correlated with the severity of steatosis (R (2) = 0.425, p < 0.001) with positive correlation between HR difference and the severity of steatosis (r = 0.60, p < 0.001). The diagnostic performances were 0.927, 0.890, 0.816 and 0.760 for steatosis ≥ 30, ≥ 20, ≥ 10 and ≥ 5 %, respectively. The cut-off is 7 for diagnosing steatosis ≥ 30 %, with a negative predictive value of 97.6 %. The cut-off is 4 in predicting steatosis ≥ 5 %, with a positive predictive value of 79 %. The prevalence of steatosis influenced the post-test probability.

CONCLUSIONS

Quantitative assessment of HR difference with US histogram technique is useful in excluding moderate to severe hepatic steatosis.

Effects of lifestyle changes including specific dietary intervention and physical activity in the management of patients with chronic hepatitis C--a randomized trial

Background

In patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC), obesity is involved in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, fatty liver disease and progression of fibrosis. The objective of this study was to compare a normoglucidic low-calorie diet (NGLCD) with a low-fat diet (LFD) among participants with CHC. Aimed to measure the impact of dietary changes in reduction of insulin resistance, obesity but also in steatosis and fibrosis.

Methods

Randomized, controlled trial in three medical centers with assessments at baseline, 6 months and 12 months. Participants were patients over 35 years with chronic hepatitis C (n = 120) with BMI over 25 kg/m². We evaluated the effects of NGLCD vs. LFD in weight management and metabolic improvement. The primary endpoint was to measure the impact of dietary changes through nutritional intervention in reversibility of insulin resistance, obesity, steatosis, and fibrosis. We performed anthropometric measurements, fasting glucose profile, serum lipids, liver profile, blood count at baseline, 6 and 12 months. Steatosis was evaluated using ultrasonographic criteria. Liver fibrosis was non-invasively assessed.

Results

After 6 and 12 months of intervention, both groups had a significant decrease in caloric consumption. At 6 months, weight loss was greater in the NGLCD group (−5.02 ± 3.43 kg vs. −4.1 ± 2.6 kg; p = 0.002) compared to the LFD group. At 1-year, however, weight loss was similar in both groups (−3.9 ± 3.3 kg vs. −3.1 ± 2.6 kg; p = 0.139). At 12 months, fasting plasma glucose, fasting plasma insulin, and HOMA-IR had significant improvements in both groups. With both diets aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) decreased with significant differences; also there were significant improvements in AST/ALT ratio, Forns fibrosis index. The two diets were associated with reduction of both the prevalence and the severity of steatosis (all p < 0.001). At 12 months, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides improved in both groups (all p < 0.05).

Conclusions

The present study establishes the benefits of low-calorie diet and low-fat diet in management of patients with hepatitis C regarding improvement of insulin resistance, steatosis and also fibrosis.

Overweight or obese patients with CHC undergoing a lifestyle intervention (specific dietary intervention and physical activity) for 1-year had significant improvements in body weight, lipid and hepatic profile.

Trial registration

PNCI2-3343/41008/2007

The predictive value of steatosis in hepatitis C virus infection

Steatosis is a complication of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the mechanisms of its development are complex, involving viral and host factors. Steatosis that is prevalently viral is associated with HCV genotype 3, and steatosis that is prevalently metabolic is associated with non-3 genotypes. Viral steatosis is correlated with the level of HCV replication, whereas metabolic steatosis is related to insulin resistance. The two types of steatosis have a different impact on HCV disease and may have an additive effect. HCV infection is a multifaceted disease with hepatic and extrahepatic manifestations. There is a body of evidence indicating that HCV-related steatosis plays a role in many HCV manifestations and, thus, the presence of steatosis is a predictive factor for the development of such events. The current data show that HCV-related steatosis predicts an advanced liver disease and a more rapid progression of fibrosis, as well as an increased risk of development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, the presence of steatosis in a HCV patient has a high predictive value that the subject may have or may develop insulin resistance, diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Recently, a strict association between HCV-related steatosis and development of atherosclerosis has been demonstrated. In addition, steatosis negatively impacts response rate to interferon-based treatment, even in HCV genotype-3 infection. Therapeutic strategies to improve steatosis and, consequently, response to standard antiviral therapy and outcome of disease are wanted. The authors summarize current knowledge of impact of steatosis on the above reported clinical conditions associated with HCV infection.

Impact of insulin resistance on sustained response in HCV patients treated with pegylated interferon and ribavirin: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Recent studies suggested that SVR rates might be lower in HCV patients with insulin resistance (IR) than in patients without IR, but the extent of the impact of IR on treatment response has not been established. We aimed to confirm the role of IR assessed by the homoeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) on SVR and to determine its magnitude.

METHODS

We performed meta-analysis of studies evaluating the impact of IR in HCV patients treated with pegylated interferon and ribavirin.

RESULTS

Fourteen studies involving 2732 patients were included. SVR was less frequent in patients with IR than in patients without IR (mean difference: -19.6%, 95% CI: -29.9% to -9.4%, p<0.001). In sensitivity analyses according to HCV-1 patients, patients with IR also less frequently attained a SVR than patients without IR (mean difference: -13.0%, 95% CI: -22.6% to -3.4%, p=0.008). In addition, the baseline HOMA-IR index was lower in responders than in non-responders (mean difference: -0.92, 95% CI: -1.53 to -0.32, p<0.001). In sensitivity analyses restricted to HCV-1 patients, the baseline HOMA-IR index remained lower in responders than in non-responders (mean difference: -0.63, 95% CI: -1.13 to -0.14, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

HCV patients with IR have a 20% lower SVR than patients without IR. The baseline HOMA-IR index is a major determinant of SVR.

Metabolic alterations and chronic hepatitis C: treatment strategies

INTRODUCTION

Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) infection is considered a metabolic disease. It is associated with a specific metabolic syndrome, HCV-associated dysmetabolic syndrome (HCADS), consisting of steatosis, hypocholesterolemia and insulin resistance/diabetes. These metabolic derangements contribute to a decrease in sustained virological response (SVR) to pegylated-interferon-α-ribavirin as standard of care (SOC), and are associated with progression of liver fibrosis.

AREAS COVERED

The review, highlighting the impact of HCADS and metabolic syndrome components of HCV disease progression and SOC, discusses current knowledge and perspectives on metabolic therapeutic strategies aimed at improving SVR rate of SOC for chronic hepatitis C.

EXPERT OPINION

HCV, features of HCADS and of metabolic syndrome may coexist in the same patient, thus all components of the metabolic syndrome must be assessed to individualize treatment. The results of therapeutic trials evaluating metabolic strategies combined with current SOC indicate that weight loss is a critical part of treatment which will improve both disease outcome and therapeutic response to SOC. Similarly, statins seem to improve response rate to SOC representing, once confirmed to be safe, an important therapeutic tool for HCV-infected patients. Findings from studies using insulin sensitizers combined with SOC are not conclusive and do not justify the use of this class of drugs in clinical practice.

Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. A decalogue from the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver (AISF) Expert Committee

We report the evidence-based Italian Association for the Study of Liver guidelines for the appropriate diagnosis and management of patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in clinical practice and its related research agenda. The prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease varies according to age, gender and ethnicity. In the general population, the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is about 25% and the incidence is of two new cases/100 people/year. 2-3% of individuals in the general population will suffer from nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Uncomplicated steatosis will usually follow a benign course. Individuals with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, however, have a reduced life expectancy, mainly owing to vascular diseases and liver-related causes. Moreover, steatosis has deleterious effects on the natural history of HCV infection. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is usually diagnosed in asymptomatic patients prompted by the occasional discovery of increased liver enzymes and/or of ultrasonographic steatosis. Medical history, complete physical examination, etiologic screening of liver injury, liver biochemistry tests, serum lipids and insulin sensitivity tests should be performed in every patient. Occult alcohol abuse should be ruled out. Ultrasonography is the first-line imaging technique. Liver biopsy, the gold standard in diagnosis and prognosis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, is an invasive procedure and its results will not influence treatment in most cases but will provide prognostic information. Assessment of fibrosis by composite scores, specific laboratory parameters and transient elastography might reduce the number of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease patients requiring liver biopsy. Dieting and physical training reinforced by behavioural therapy are associated with improved nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Diabetes and the metabolic syndrome should be ruled out at timed intervals in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients should undergo periodic evaluation of cardiovascular risk and of advancement of their liver disease; those with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-cirrhosis should be evaluated for early diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma.