Potential roles and prognostic significance of exosomes in cancer drug resistance

Enigmatic exosomal connection in lung cancer drug resistance

Lung cancer remains a significant global health concern with limited treatment options and poor prognosis, particularly in advanced stages. Small extracellular vesicles such as exosomes, secreted by cancer cells, play a pivotal role in mediating drug resistance in lung cancer. Exosomes have been found to facilitate intercellular communication by transferring various biomolecules between cancer cells and their microenvironment. Additionally, exosomes can transport signaling molecules promoting cancer cell survival and proliferation conferring resistance to chemotherapy. Moreover, exosomes can modulate the tumor microenvironment by inducing phenotypic changes hindering drug response. Understanding the role of exosomes in mediating drug resistance in lung cancer is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies and biomarkers to overcome treatment limitations. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on conventional and emerging drug resistance mechanisms and the involvement of exosomes as well as exosome-mediated factors mediating drug resistance in lung cancer.

Current knowledge on therapeutic, diagnostic, and prognostics applications of exosomes in multiple myeloma: Opportunities and challenges

Interactions between the plasma cells and the BM microenvironment of Multiple myeloma (MM) take place through factors such as exosomes. Many studies have confirmed the role of exosomes in these interactions. By carrying proteins, cytokines, lipids, microRNAs, etc. as their cargo, exosomes can regulate the interactions between MM plasma cells and neighboring cells and participate in the signaling between cancer cells and the environment. It has been shown that MM-derived exosomes can induce angiogenesis, enhance osteoblast activity, confer drug resistance, and have immunosuppressive properties. Abnormal cargos in endosomes originating from MM patients, can be used as a cancer biomarker to detect or screen early prognosis in MM patients. The native nanostructure of exosomes, in addition to their biocompatibility, stability, and safety, make them excellent candidates for therapeutic, drug delivery, and immunomodulatory applications against MM. On the other hand, exosomes derived from dendritic cells (DC) may be used as vaccines against MM. Thanks to the development of new 'omics' approaches, we anticipate to hear more about exosomes in fight against MM. In the present review, we described the most current knowledge on the role of exosomes in MM pathogenesis and their potential role as novel biomarkers and therapeutic tools in MM.

Machine learning for prediction of acute kidney injury in patients diagnosed with sepsis in critical care

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a common and severe complication in patients diagnosed with sepsis. It is associated with higher mortality rates, prolonged hospital stays, increased utilization of medical resources, and financial burden on patients' families. This study aimed to establish and validate predictive models using machine learning algorithms to accurately predict the occurrence of AKI in patients diagnosed with sepsis.

METHODS

This retrospective study utilized real observational data from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV (MIMIC-IV) database. It included patients aged 18 to 90 years diagnosed with sepsis who were admitted to the ICU for the first time and had hospital stays exceeding 48 hours. Predictive models, employing various machine learning algorithms including Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM), EXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Random Forest (RF), Decision Tree (DT), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Logistic Regression (LR), were developed. The dataset was randomly divided into training and test sets at a ratio of 4:1.

RESULTS

A total of 10,575 sepsis patients were included in the analysis, of whom 8,575 (81.1%) developed AKI during hospitalization. A selection of 47 variables was utilized for model construction. The models derived from LightGBM, XGBoost, RF, DT, ANN, SVM, and LR achieved AUCs of 0.801, 0.773, 0.772, 0.737, 0.720, 0.765, and 0.776, respectively. Among these models, LightGBM demonstrated the most superior predictive performance.

CONCLUSIONS

These machine learning models offer valuable predictive capabilities for identifying AKI in patients diagnosed with sepsis. The LightGBM model, with its superior predictive capability, could aid clinicians in early identification of high-risk patients.

Tumorigenic and tumoricidal properties of exosomes in cancers; a forward look

In recent decades, emerging data have highlighted the critical role of extracellular vesicles (EVs), especially (exosomes) Exos, in the progression and development of several cancer types. These nano-sized vesicles are released by different cell lineages within the cancer niche and maintain a suitable platform for the interchange of various signaling molecules in a paracrine manner. Based on several studies, Exos can transfer oncogenic factors to other cells, and alter the activity of immune cells, and tumor microenvironment, leading to the expansion of tumor cells and metastasis to the remote sites. It has been indicated that the cell-to-cell crosstalk is so complicated and a wide array of factors are involved in this process. How and by which mechanisms Exos can regulate the behavior of tumor cells and non-cancer cells is at the center of debate. Here, we scrutinize the molecular mechanisms involved in the oncogenic behavior of Exos released by different cell lineages of tumor parenchyma. Besides, tumoricidal properties of Exos from various stem cell (SC) types are discussed in detail.

Current Update of Research on Exosomes in Cancer

Exosomes are vesicles secreted by the plasma membrane of the cells delimited by a lipid bilayer membrane into the extracellular space of the cell. Their release is associated with the disposal mechanism to remove unwanted materials from the cells. Exosomes released from primary tumour sites migrate to other parts of the body to create a metastatic environment for spreading the tumour cells. We have reviewed that exosomes interfere with the tumour progression by (i) promoting angiogenesis, (ii) initiating metastasis, (iii) regulating tumour microenvironment (TME) and inflammation, (iv) modifying energy metabolism, and (v) transferring mutations. We have found that EVs play an important role in inducing tumour drug resistance against anticancer drugs. This review discusses the potential of exosomes to generate a significant therapeutic effect along with improved diagnosis, prognosis, insights on the various research conducted and their significant findings of our interest.

The link between intracellular calcium signaling and exosomal PD-L1 in cancer progression and immunotherapy

Exosomes are small membrane vesicles containing microRNA, RNA, DNA fragments, and proteins that are transferred from donor cells to recipient cells. Tumor cells release exosomes to reprogram the factors associated with the tumor microenvironment (TME) causing tumor metastasis and immune escape. Emerging evidence revealed that cancer cell-derived exosomes carry immune inhibitory molecule program death ligand 1 (PD-L1) that binds with receptor program death protein 1 (PD-1) and promote tumor progression by escaping immune response. Currently, some FDA-approved monoclonal antibodies are clinically used for cancer treatment by blocking PD-1/PD-L1 interaction. Despite notable treatment outcomes, some patients show poor drug response. Exosomal PD-L1 plays a vital role in lowering the treatment response, showing resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockage therapy through recapitulating the effect of cell surface PD-L1. To enhance therapeutic response, inhibition of exosomal PD-L1 is required. Calcium signaling is the central regulator of tumorigenesis and can regulate exosome biogenesis and secretion by modulating Rab GTPase family and membrane fusion factors. Immune checkpoints are also connected with calcium signaling and calcium channel blockers like amlodipine, nifedipine, lercanidipine, diltiazem, and verapamil were also reported to suppress cellular PD-L1 expression. Therefore, to enhance the PD-1/PD-L1 blockage therapy response, the reduction of exosomal PD-L1 secretion from cancer cells is in our therapeutic consideration. In this review, we proposed a therapeutic strategy by targeting calcium signaling to inhibit the expression of PD-L1-containing exosome levels that could reduce the anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy resistance and increase the patient's drug response rate.

DNA Conserved in Diverse Animals Since the Precambrian Controls Genes for Embryonic Development

DNA that controls gene expression (e.g. enhancers, promoters) has seemed almost never to be conserved between distantly related animals, like vertebrates and arthropods. This is mysterious, because development of such animals is partly organized by homologous genes with similar complex expression patterns, termed "deep homology." Here, we report 25 regulatory DNA segments conserved across bilaterian animals, of which 7 are also conserved in cnidaria (coral and sea anemone). They control developmental genes (e.g. Nr2f, Ptch, Rfx1/3, Sall, Smad6, Sp5, Tbx2/3), including six homeobox genes: Gsx, Hmx, Meis, Msx, Six1/2, and Zfhx3/4. The segments contain perfectly or near-perfectly conserved CCAAT boxes, E-boxes, and other sequences recognized by regulatory proteins. More such DNA conservation will surely be found soon, as more genomes are published and sequence comparison is optimized. This reveals a control system for animal development conserved since the Precambrian.

Composition of Conditioned Media from Radioresistant and Chemoresistant Cancer Cells Reveals miRNA and Other Secretory Factors Implicated in the Development of Resistance

Resistance to chemo- or radiotherapy is the main obstacle to consistent treatment outcomes in oncology patients. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving the development of resistance is required. This review focuses on secretory factors derived from chemo- and radioresistant cancer cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and cancer stem cells (CSCs) that mediate the development of resistance in unexposed cells. The first line of evidence considers the experiments with conditioned media (CM) from chemo- and radioresistant cells, CAFs, MSCs, and CSCs that elevate resistance upon the ionizing radiation or anti-cancer drug exposure of previously untreated cells. The composition of CM revealed factors such as circular RNAs; interleukins; plasminogen activator inhibitor; and oncosome-shuttled lncRNAs, mRNAs, and miRNAs that aid in cellular communication and transmit signals inducing the chemo- and radioresistance of sensitive cancer cells. Data, demonstrating that radioresistant cancer cells become resistant to anti-neoplastic drug exposure and vice versa, are also discussed. The mechanisms driving the development of cross-resistance between chemotherapy and radiotherapy are highlighted. The secretion of resistance-mediating factors to intercellular fluid and blood brings attention to its diagnostic potential. Highly stable serum miRNA candidates were proposed by several studies as prognostic markers of radioresistance; however, clinical studies are needed to validate their utility. The ability to predict a treatment response with the help of the miRNA resistance status database will help with the selection of an effective therapeutic strategy. The possibility of miRNA-based therapy is currently being investigated with ongoing clinical studies, and such approaches can be used to alleviate resistance in oncology patients.

Human brain microvascular endothelial cells release different types of P-glycoprotein-containing extracellular vesicles upon exposure to doxorubicin

In the brain, the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (Pgp) is predominantly located on the luminal membrane of microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) that form the blood-brain barrier. In addition, Pgp is localized in intracellular organelles involved in Pgp traffic and cycling and, by the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), in intercellular Pgp transfer to cells with low Pgp expression. We recently described that drug exposure of a human BMEC line (hCMEC/D3) induces the release of Pgp-EGFP-containing EVs; however, the nature of the Pgp-enriched vesicles was not characterized. The two main categories of EVs are exosomes and microvesicles, which differ in origin, size, and molecular cargo. In the present study, we performed similar experiments with hCMEC/D3 cells in the absence and presence of doxorubicin and isolated and characterized the EVs released by the cells during the experiments by differential ultracentrifugation with/without subsequent sucrose gradient fractionation of EV pellets, proteomic profiling, EV size analysis, and confocal fluorescence microscopy. Using cocultures of hCMEC/D3 wildtype cells and cells transduced with MDR1-EGFP or monocultures of hCMEC/D3-MDR1-EGFP cells, we found release of both Pgp-enriched exosomes and microvesicles but analysis of the exosomal marker protein Rab7 indicated that doxorubicin increased particularly the release of exosomes. Transfer experiments with isolated EVs demonstrated EV endocytosis by recipient cells. EV release from BMECs in response to anticancer drugs such as doxorubicin likely serves different functions, including non-genetic intercellular transfer of a resistance phenotype to neighboring BMECs and a mechanism of drug extrusion that contributes to brain protection against potentially toxic chemotherapeutic drugs.

Role of exosomes in prostate cancer and male fertility

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common and fifth most aggressive neoplasm among men worldwide. In the last decade, extracellular vesicle (EV) research has decoded multiple unsolved cancer-related mysteries. EVs can be classified as microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and exosomes, among others. Exosomes play a key role in cellular signaling. Their internal cargos (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids) influence the recipient cell. In PCa, the exosome is the regulator of cancer progression. It is also a promising theranostics tool for PCa. Moreover, exosomes have strong participation in male fertility complications. This review aims to highlight the exosome theranostics signature in PCa and its association with male fertility.

Mouse Pramel1 regulates spermatogonial development by inhibiting retinoic acid signaling during spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis begins when cell fate-committed prospermatogonia migrate to the basement membrane and initiate spermatogenesis in response to retinoic acid (RA) in the neonatal testis. The underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms in this process are not fully understood. Here, we report findings on the involvement of a cancer/testis antigen, PRAMEL1, in the initiation and maintenance of spermatogenesis. By analyzing mouse models with either global or conditional Pramel1 inactivation, we found that PRAMEL1 regulates the RA responsiveness of the subtypes of prospermatogonia in the neonatal testis, and affects their homing process during the initiation of spermatogenesis. Pramel1 deficiency led to increased fecundity in juvenile males and decreased fecundity in mature males. In addition, Pramel1 deficiency resulted in a regional Sertoli cell-only phenotype during the first round of spermatogenesis, which was rescued by administration of the RA inhibitor WIN18,446, suggesting that PRAMEL1 functions as an inhibitor of RA signaling in germ cells. Overall, our findings suggest that PRAMEL1 fine-tunes RA signaling, playing a crucial role in the proper establishment of the first and subsequent rounds of spermatogenesis.

Resolving a guanine-quadruplex structure in the SARS-CoV-2 genome through circular dichroism and multiscale molecular modeling

The genome of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is made up of a single-stranded RNA fragment that can assume a specific secondary structure, whose stability can influence the virus's ability to reproduce. Recent studies have identified putative guanine quadruplex sequences in SARS-CoV-2 genome fragments that are involved in coding for both structural and non-structural proteins. In this contribution, we focus on a specific G-rich sequence referred to as RG-2, which codes for the non-structural protein 10 (Nsp10) and assumes a guanine-quadruplex (G4) arrangement. We provide the secondary structure of RG-2 G4 at atomistic resolution by molecular modeling and simulation, validated by the superposition of experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism spectra. Through both experimental and simulation approaches, we have demonstrated that pyridostatin (PDS), a widely recognized G4 binder, can bind to and stabilize RG-2 G4 more strongly than RG-1, another G4 forming sequence that was previously proposed as a potential target for antiviral drug candidates. Overall, this study highlights RG-2 as a valuable target to inhibit the translation and replication of SARS-CoV-2, paving the way towards original therapeutic approaches against emerging RNA viruses.

The multifaceted role of extracellular vesicles in prostate cancer-a review

Prostate cancer is the second most prominent form of cancer in men and confers the highest mortality after lung cancer. The term "extracellular vesicles" refers to minute endosomal-derived membrane microvesicles and it was demonstrated that extracellular vesicles affect the environment in which tumors originate. Extracellular vesicles' involvement is also established in the development of drug resistance, angiogenesis, stemness, and radioresistance in various cancers including prostate cancer. Extracellular vesicles influence the general environment, processes, and growth of prostate cancer and can be a potential area that offers a significant lead in prostate cancer therapy. In this review, we have elaborated on the multifaceted role of extracellular vesicles in various processes involved in the development of prostate cancer, and their multitude of applications in the diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer through the encapsulation of various bioactives.

Cancer Bioenergetics and Tumor Microenvironments-Enhancing Chemotherapeutics and Targeting Resistant Niches through Nanosystems

Cancer is an impending bottleneck in the advanced scientific workflow to achieve diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic success. Most cancers are refractory to conventional diagnostic and chemotherapeutics due to their limited targetability, specificity, solubility, and side effects. The inherent ability of each cancer to evolve through various genetic and epigenetic transformations and metabolic reprogramming underlies therapeutic limitations. Though tumor microenvironments (TMEs) are quite well understood in some cancers, each microenvironment differs from the other in internal perturbations and metabolic skew thereby impeding the development of appropriate diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and therapies. Cancer associated bioenergetics modulations regulate TME, angiogenesis, immune evasion, generation of resistant niches and tumor progression, and a thorough understanding is crucial to the development of metabolic therapies. However, this remains a missing element in cancer theranostics, necessitating the development of modalities that can be adapted for targetability, diagnostics and therapeutics. In this challenging scenario, nanomaterials are modular platforms for understanding TME and achieving successful theranostics. Several nanoscale particles have been successfully researched in animal models, quite a few have reached clinical trials, and some have achieved clinical success. Nanoparticles exhibit an intrinsic capability to interact with diverse biomolecules and modulate their functions. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be functionalized with receptors, modulators, and drugs to facilitate specific targeting with reduced toxicity. This review discusses the current understanding of different theranostic nanosystems, their synthesis, functionalization, and targetability for therapeutic modulation of bioenergetics, and metabolic reprogramming of the cancer microenvironment. We highlight the potential of nanosystems for enhanced chemotherapeutic success emphasizing the questions that remain unanswered.

Long non-coding RNAs in non-small cell lung cancer: implications for EGFR-TKI resistance

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most common types of malignant tumors as well as the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world. The application of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) has dramatically improved the prognosis of NSCLC patients who harbor EGFR mutations. However, despite an excellent initial response, NSCLC inevitably becomes resistant to EGFR-TKIs, leading to irreversible disease progression. Hence, it is of great significance to shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the EGFR-TKI resistance in NSCLC. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are critical gene modulators that are able to act as oncogenes or tumor suppressors that modulate tumorigenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Recently, extensive evidence demonstrates that lncRNAs also have a significant function in modulating EGFR-TKI resistance in NSCLC. In this review, we present a comprehensive summary of the lncRNAs involved in EGFR-TKI resistance in NSCLC and focus on their detailed mechanisms of action, including activation of alternative bypass signaling pathways, phenotypic transformation, intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment, competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) networks, and epigenetic modifications. In addition, we briefly discuss the limitations and the clinical implications of current lncRNAs research in this field.

TREK channels in Mechanotransduction: a Focus on the Cardiovascular System

Mechano-electric feedback is one of the most important subsystems operating in the cardiovascular system, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains rather unknown. Several proteins have been proposed to explain the molecular mechanism of mechano-transduction. Transient receptor potential (TRP) and Piezo channels appear to be the most important candidates to constitute the molecular mechanism behind of the inward current in response to a mechanical stimulus. However, the inhibitory/regulatory processes involving potassium channels that operate on the cardiac system are less well known. TWIK-Related potassium (TREK) channels have emerged as strong candidates due to their capacity for the regulation of the flow of potassium in response to mechanical stimuli. Current data strongly suggest that TREK channels play a role as mechano-transducers in different components of the cardiovascular system, not only at central (heart) but also at peripheral (vascular) level. In this context, this review summarizes and highlights the main existing evidence connecting this important subfamily of potassium channels with the cardiac mechano-transduction process, discussing molecular and biophysical aspects of such a connection.

Exosomes: Promising Delivery Tools for Overcoming Blood-Brain Barrier and Glioblastoma Therapy

Gliomas make up virtually 80% of all lethal primary brain tumors and are categorized based on their cell of origin. Glioblastoma is an astrocytic tumor that has an inferior prognosis despite the ongoing advances in treatment modalities. One of the main reasons for this shortcoming is the presence of the blood-brain barrier and blood-brain tumor barrier. Novel invasive and non-invasive drug delivery strategies for glioblastoma have been developed to overcome both the intact blood-brain barrier and leverage the disrupted nature of the blood-brain tumor barrier to target cancer cells after resection-the first treatment stage of glioblastoma. Exosomes are among non-invasive drug delivery methods and have emerged as a natural drug delivery vehicle with high biological barrier penetrability. There are various exosome isolation methods from different origins, and the intended use of the exosomes and starting materials defines the choice of isolation technique. In the present review, we have given an overview of the structure of the blood-brain barrier and its disruption in glioblastoma. This review provided a comprehensive insight into novel passive and active drug delivery techniques to overcome the blood-brain barrier, emphasizing exosomes as an excellent emerging drug, gene, and effective molecule delivery vehicle used in glioblastoma therapy.

Macrophages and small extracellular vesicle mediated-intracellular communication in the peritoneal microenvironment: Impact on endometriosis development

Endometriosis is an inflammatory disease that is defined as the growth of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus, commonly on the lining of the pelvic cavity, visceral organs and in the ovaries. It affects around 190 million women of reproductive age worldwide and is associated with chronic pelvic pain and infertility, which greatly impairs health-related life quality. The symptoms of the disease are variable, this combined with a lack of diagnostic biomarkers and necessity of surgical visualisation to confirm disease, the prognosis can take an average timespan of 6–8 years. Accurate non-invasive diagnostic tests and the identification of effective therapeutic targets are essential for disease management. To achieve this, one of the priorities is to define the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms that contribute to endometriosis. Recently, immune dysregulation in the peritoneal cavity has been linked to endometriosis progression. Macrophages account for over 50% of immune cells in the peritoneal fluid and are critical for lesion growth, angiogenesis, innervation and immune regulation. Apart from the secretion of soluble factors like cytokines and chemokines, macrophages can communicate with other cells and prime disease microenvironments, such as the tumour microenvironment, via the secretion of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). The sEV-mediated intracellular communication pathways between macrophages and other cells within the peritoneal microenvironment in endometriosis remain unclear. Here, we give an overview of peritoneal macrophage (pMΦ) phenotypes in endometriosis and discuss the role of sEVs in the intracellular communication within disease microenvironments and the impact they may have on endometriosis progression.

Exosomes derived from cancer-associated fibroblasts mediate response to cancer therapy

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the prominent stromal cell population in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which play an indispensable role in cancer progression and response to therapy. CAFs provide communication between tumor cells and surrounding cells by secreting soluble biomolecules and extracellular vesicles (EVs). Exosomes are small membrane-bound EVs that contain various cargos, including growth factors, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), cytokines, and chemokines. These biomolecules can be transferred between cells within the TME and alter the behavior of recipient cells. Some studies have shown that exosomes secreted by CAFs contribute to resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. This review focuses on CAF-derived exosomes in different types of tumors, with emphasis on resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Thyroid hormone receptor knockout prevents the loss of Xenopus tail regeneration capacity at metamorphic climax

BACKGROUND

Animal regeneration is the natural process of replacing or restoring damaged or missing cells, tissues, organs, and even entire body to full function. Studies in mammals have revealed that many organs lose regenerative ability soon after birth when thyroid hormone (T3) level is high. This suggests that T3 play an important role in organ regeneration. Intriguingly, plasma T3 level peaks during amphibian metamorphosis, which is very similar to postembryonic development in humans. In addition, many organs, such as heart and tail, also lose their regenerative ability during metamorphosis. These make frogs as a good model to address how the organs gradually lose their regenerative ability during development and what roles T3 may play in this. Early tail regeneration studies have been done mainly in the tetraploid Xenopus laevis (X. laevis), which is difficult for gene knockout studies. Here we use the highly related but diploid anuran X. tropicalis to investigate the role of T3 signaling in tail regeneration with gene knockout approaches.

RESULTS

We discovered that X. tropicalis tadpoles could regenerate their tail from premetamorphic stages up to the climax stage 59 then lose regenerative capacity as tail resorption begins, just like what observed for X. laevis. To test the hypothesis that T3-induced metamorphic program inhibits tail regeneration, we used TR double knockout (TRDKO) tadpoles lacking both TRα and TRβ, the only two receptor genes in vertebrates, for tail regeneration studies. Our results showed that TRs were not necessary for tail regeneration at all stages. However, unlike wild type tadpoles, TRDKO tadpoles retained regenerative capacity at the climax stages 60/61, likely in part by increasing apoptosis at the early regenerative period and enhancing subsequent cell proliferation. In addition, TRDKO animals had higher levels of amputation-induced expression of many genes implicated to be important for tail regeneration, compared to the non-regenerative wild type tadpoles at stage 61. Finally, the high level of apoptosis in the remaining uncut portion of the tail as wild type tadpoles undergo tail resorption after stage 61 appeared to also contribute to the loss of regenerative ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings for the first time revealed an evolutionary conservation in the loss of tail regeneration capacity at metamorphic climax between X. laevis and X. tropicalis. Our studies with molecular and genetic approaches demonstrated that TR-mediated, T3-induced gene regulation program is responsible not only for tail resorption but also for the loss of tail regeneration capacity. Further studies by using the model should uncover how T3 modulates the regenerative outcome and offer potential new avenues for regenerative medicines toward human patients.

Echocardiographic assessment of Xenopus tropicalis heart regeneration

BACKGROUND

Recently, it was reported that the adult X. tropicalis heart can regenerate in a nearly scar-free manner after injury via apical resection. Thus, a cardiac regeneration model in adult X. tropicalis provides a powerful tool for recapitulating a perfect regeneration phenomenon, elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms of cardiac regeneration in an adult heart, and developing an interventional strategy for the improvement in the regeneration of an adult heart, which may be more applicable in mammals than in species with a lower degree of evolution. However, a noninvasive and rapid real-time method that can observe and measure the long-term dynamic change in the regenerated heart in living organisms to monitor and assess the regeneration and repair status in this model has not yet been established.

RESULTS

In the present study, the methodology of echocardiographic assessment to characterize the morphology, anatomic structure and cardiac function of injured X. tropicalis hearts established by apex resection was established. The findings of this study demonstrated for the first time that small animal echocardiographic analysis can be used to assess the regeneration of X. tropicalis damaged heart in a scar-free perfect regeneration or nonperfect regeneration with adhesion manner via recovery of morphology and cardiac function.

CONCLUSIONS

Small animal echocardiography is a reliable, noninvasive and rapid real-time method for observing and assessing the long-term dynamic changes in the regeneration of injured X. tropicalis hearts.

Future prospects in the tissue engineering of heart valves: a focus on the role of stem cells

INTRODUCTION

Heart valve disease is a growing burden on the healthcare system. Current solutions are insufficient for young patients and do not offer relief from reintervention. Tissue engineered heart valves (TEHVs) offer a solution that grows and responds to the native environment in a similar way to a healthy valve. Stem cells hold potential to populate these valves as a malleable source that can adapt to environmental cues.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers current methods of recapitulating features of native heart valves with tissue engineering through use of stem cell populations with in situ and in vitro methods.

EXPERT OPINION

In the field of TEHVs, we see a variety of approaches in cell source, biomaterial, and maturation methods. Choosing appropriate cell populations may be very patient specific; consistency and predictability will be key to long-term success. In situ methods are closer to translation but struggle with consistent cellularization. In vitro culture requires specialized methods but may recapitulate native valve cell populations with higher fidelity. Understanding how cell populations react to valve conditions and immune response is vital for success. Detrimental valve pathologies have proven to be difficult to avoid in early translation attempts.

Time- and Concentration-Dependent Effects of the Stem Cells Derived from Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth on Osteosarcoma Cells

Background

Stem cells have been proposed to be one of the potent sources for treatment applications. Among diverse types of stem cells, stem cells derived from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs) are known as the immature stem cell population, which are easily isolated, fast, and without ethical implications. SHEDs could induce pluripotent stem cells and show differentiation in chondrocytes, adipocytes, osteoblasts, neural cells, hepatocytes, myocytes, odontoblasts, and skin cells.

Materials and Methods

In the current study, we investigated the effects of SHED on osteosarcoma cells (Saos-II) following 3 and 5 days indirect coculture.

Results

Our results showed that indirect coculture of SHED with Saos-II cells could promote or inhibit Saos-II cells' growth in a concentration (the number of SHED vs. Saos-II cells) and time (days of indirect co-culture) dependent manner.

Conclusion

Our findings suggested that, indirectly, SHED co-culture with the Soas-II cells might functions as a tumor suppressor where a higher number of SHEDs are used in the culture in comparison with the one cultured in the absence of/or fewer SHED incubation.

Mutations in SARS-CoV-2: Insights on structure, variants, vaccines, and biomedical interventions

COVID-19 is a worldwide pandemic caused by SARS-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Less than a year after the emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic, many vaccines have arrived on the market with innovative technologies in the field of vaccinology. Based on the use of messenger RNA (mRNA) encoding the Spike SARS-Cov-2 protein or on the use of recombinant adenovirus vectors enabling the gene encoding the Spike protein to be introduced into our cells, these strategies make it possible to envisage the vaccination in a new light with tools that are more scalable than the vaccine strategies used so far. Faced with the appearance of new variants, which will gradually take precedence over the strain at the origin of the pandemic, these new strategies will allow a much faster update of vaccines to fight against these new variants, some of which may escape neutralization by vaccine antibodies. However, only a vaccination policy based on rapid and massive vaccination of the population but requiring a supply of sufficient doses could make it possible to combat the emergence of these variants. Indeed, the greater the number of infected individuals, the faster the virus multiplies, with an increased risk of the emergence of variants in these RNA viruses. This review will discuss SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology and evolution approaches in altered transmission platforms and emphasize the different mutations and how they influence the virus characteristics. Also, this article summarizes the common vaccines and the implication of the mutations and genetic variety of SARS-CoV-2 on the COVID-19 biomedical arbitrations.

Drug Resistance: The Role of Exosomal miRNA in the Microenvironment of Hematopoietic Tumors

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, have an important role thanks to their ability to communicate and exchange information between tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME), and have also been associated with communicating anti-cancer drug resistance (DR). The increase in proliferation of cancer cells alters oxygen levels, which causes hypoxia and results in a release of exosomes by the cancer cells. In this review, the results of studies examining the role of exosomal miRNA in DR, and their mechanism, are discussed in detail in hematological tumors: leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. In conclusion, we underline the exosome's function as a possible drug delivery vehicle by understanding its cargo. Engineered exosomes can be used to be more specific for personalized therapy.

Exosomal circular RNA: a signature for lung cancer progression

Membrane vesicles having a diameter of 30-150 nm are known as exosomes. Several cancer types secrete exosomes, which may contain proteins, circular RNAs (circRNAs), microRNAs, or DNA. CircRNAs are endogenous RNAs that do not code for proteins and can create continuous and covalently closed loops. In cancer pathogenesis, especially metastasis, exosomal circRNAs (exo-circRNAs) have a crucial role mainly due to the frequently aberrant expression levels within tumors. However, neither the activities nor the regulatory mechanisms of exo-circRNAs in advancing lung cancer (LC) are obvious. A better understanding of the regulation and network connections of exo-circRNAs will lead to better treatment for LCs. The main objective of the current review is to highlight the functions and mechanisms of exo-circRNAs in LC and assess the relationships between exo-circRNA dysregulation and LC progression. In addition, underline the possible therapeutic targets based on exo-circRNA modulating.

Poxviruses and the immune system: Implications for monkeypox virus

Poxviruses (PXVs) are mostly known for the variola virus, being the cause of smallpox; however, re-emerging PXVs have also shown a great capacity to develop outbreaks of pox-like infections in humans. The situation is alarming; PXV outbreaks have been involving both endemic and non-endemic areas in recent decades. Stopped smallpox vaccination is a reason offered mainly for this changing epidemiology that implies the protective role of immunity in the pathology of PXV infections. The immune system recognizes PXVs and elicits responses, but PXVs can antagonize these responses. Here, we briefly review the immunology of PXV infections, with emphasis on the role of pattern-recognition receptors, macrophages, and natural killer cells in the early response to PXV infections and PXVs’ strategies influencing these responses, as well as taking a glance at other immune cells, which discussion over them mainly occurs in association with PXV immunization rather than PXV infection. Throughout the review, numerous evasion mechanisms are highlighted, which might have implications for designing specific immunotherapies for PXV in the future.

The role of SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins in immune evasion

Many questions on the SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis remain to answer. The SARS-CoV-2 genome encodes some accessory proteins that are essential for infection. Notably, accessory proteins of SARS-CoV-2 play significant roles in affecting immune escape and viral pathogenesis. Therefore SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins could be considered putative drug targets. IFN-I and IFN-III responses are the primary mechanisms of innate antiviral immunity in infection clearance. Previous research has shown that SARS-CoV-2 suppresses IFN-β by infecting host cells via ORF3a, ORF3b, ORF6, ORF7a, ORF7b, ORF8, and ORF9b. Furthermore, ORF3a, ORF7a, and ORF7b have a role in blocking IFNα signaling, and ORF8 represses IFNβ signaling. The ORF3a, ORF7a, and ORF7b disrupt the STAT1/2 phosphorylation. ORF3a, ORF6, ORF7a, and ORF7b could prevent the ISRE promoter activity. The main SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins involved in immune evasion are discussed here for comprehensive learning on viral entry, replication, and transmission in vaccines and antiviral development.

Assessing spermatozoal small ribonucleic acids and their relationship to blastocyst development in idiopathic infertile males

Clinical testing strategies for diagnosing male factor infertility are limited. A deeper analysis of spermatozoa-derived factors could potentially diagnose some cases of 'unexplained infertility'. Spermatozoa carry a rich and dynamic profile of small RNAs, which have demonstrated potential developmental importance and association with fertility status. We used next-generation sequencing to correlate sperm small RNA profiles of normozoospermic males (n = 54) with differing blastocyst development rates, when using young donor oocytes. While ribosomal RNAs accounted for the highest number of sequencing reads, transfer RNA fragments of tRNA^Gly/GCC and tRNA^Val-CAC were the most abundant sequences across all sperm samples. A total of 324 small RNAs were differentially expressed between samples with high (n = 18) and low (n = 14) blastocyst rates (p-adj < 0.05). Ninety three miRNAs were differentially expressed between these groups (p-adj < 0.05). Differentially expressed transfer RNA fragments included: 5'-tRF-Asp-GTC; 5'-tRF-Phe-GAA; and 3'-tRF-Ser-GCA. Differentially expressed miRNAs included: let-7f-2-5p; miR-4755-3p; and miR-92a-3p. This study provides the foundation on which to validate a clinical panel of fertility-related sperm small RNAs, as well as to pursue potential mechanisms through which they alter blastocyst development.

Niclosamide targets the dynamic progression of macrophages for the resolution of endometriosis in a mouse model

Due to the vital roles of macrophages in the pathogenesis of endometriosis, targeting macrophages could be a promising therapeutic direction. Here, we investigated the efficacy of niclosamide for the resolution of a perturbed microenvironment caused by dysregulated macrophages in a mouse model of endometriosis. Single-cell transcriptomic analysis revealed the heterogeneity of macrophages including three intermediate subtypes with sharing characteristics of traditional “small” or “large” peritoneal macrophages (SPMs and LPMs) in the peritoneal cavity. Endometriosis-like lesions (ELL) enhanced the differentiation of recruited macrophages, promoted the replenishment of resident LPMs, and increased the ablation of embryo-derived LPMs, which were stepwise suppressed by niclosamide. In addition, niclosamide restored intercellular communications between macrophages and B cells. Therefore, niclosamide rescued the perturbed microenvironment in endometriosis through its fine regulations on the dynamic progression of macrophages. Validation of similar macrophage pathogenesis in patients will further promote the clinical usage of niclosamide for endometriosis treatment.

Motor neuron survival is associated with reduced neuroinflammation and increased autophagy after brachial plexus avulsion injury in aldose reductase-deficient mice

Brachial plexus root avulsion (BPRA) is frequently caused by high-energy trauma including traffic accident and birth trauma, which will induces massive motoneurons (MNs) death as well as loss of motor and sensory function in the upper limb. The death of MNs is attributed to energy deficiency, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress at the injured ventral horn of spinal cord triggered by BPRA injury. It has been reported which aldose reductase (AR), an endogenous enzyme that catalyzes fructose synthesis, positively correlates with the poor prognosis following cerebral ischemic injury, diabetic retinopathy and diabetic peripheral neuropathy. However, the role of AR in BPRA remains unknown. Herein, we used a mouse model and found that in the spinal cord of BPRA mice, the upregulation of AR correlated significantly with (1) an inactivated SIRT1-AMPK-mTOR pathway and disrupted autophagy; (2) increased byproducts accumulation of lipid peroxidation metabolism and neuroinflammation; and (3) increased MNs death. Furthermore, our results demonstrated the role of AR in BPRA injury whereby the absence of AR (AR knockout mice, AR-/-) prevented the hyper-neuroinflammation and disrupted autophagy as well as motor neuron death caused by BPRA injury. Finally, we further demonstrate that AR inhibitor epalrestat is neuroprotective against BPRA injury by increasing autophagy level, alleviating neuroinflammation and rescuing MNs death in mice. Collectively, our data demonstrate that the AR upregulation in the spinal cord is an important factor contributing to autophagy disruption, neuroinflammation and MNs death following brachial plexus roots avulsion in mice. Our study also provides a promising therapy drug to assist re-implantation surgery for the treatment of BPRA.

Exosomes, autophagy and ER stress pathways in human diseases: Cross-regulation and therapeutic approaches

Exosomal release pathway and autophagy together maintain homeostasis and survival of cells under stressful conditions. Autophagy is a catabolic process through which cell entities, such as malformed biomacromolecules and damaged organelles, are degraded and recycled via the lysosomal-dependent pathway. Exosomes, a sub-type of extracellular vesicles (EVs) formed by the inward budding of multivesicular bodies (MVBs), are mostly involved in mediating communication between cells. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an adaptive response that is activated to sustain survival in the cells faced with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress through a complex network that involves protein synthesis, exosomes secretion and autophagy. Disruption of the critical crosstalk between EVs, UPR and autophagy may be implicated in various human diseases, including cancers and neurodegenerative diseases, yet the molecular mechanism(s) behind the coordination of these communication pathways remains obscure. Here, we review the available information on the mechanisms that control autophagy, ER stress and EV pathways, with the view that a better understanding of their crosstalk and balance may improve our knowledge on the pathogenesis and treatment of human diseases, where these pathways are dysregulated.

Multiscale interactions of liquid, bubbles and solid phases in ultrasonic fields revealed by multiphysics modelling and ultrafast X-ray imaging

The volume of fluid (VOF) and continuous surface force (CSF) methods were used to develop a bubble dynamics model for the simulation of bubble oscillation and implosion dynamics under ultrasound. The model was calibrated and validated by the X-ray image data acquired by ultrafast synchrotron X-ray. Coupled bubble interactions with bulk graphite and freely moving particles were also simulated based on the validated model. Simulation and experiments quantified the surface instability developed along the bubble surface under the influence of ultrasound pressure fields. Once the surface instability exceeds a certain amplitude, bubble implosion occurs, creating shock waves and highly deformed, irregular gas-liquid boundaries and smaller bubble fragments. Bubble implosion can produce cyclic impulsive stresses sufficient enough to cause µs fatigue exfoliation of graphite layers. Bubble-particle interaction simulations reveal the underlying mechanisms for efficient particle dispersion or particle wrapping which are all strongly related to the oscillation dynamics of the bubbles and the particle surface properties.

A review on computational approaches that support the researches on traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) against COVID-19

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 highly caused contagious infections and massive deaths worldwide as well as unprecedentedly disrupting global economies and societies, and the urgent development of new antiviral medications are required. Medicinal herbs are promising resources for the discovery of prophylactic candidate against COVID-19. Considerable amounts of experimental efforts have been made on vaccines and direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs), but neither of them was fast and fully developed.

PURPOSE

This study examined the computational approaches that have played a significant role in drug discovery and development against COVID-19, and these computational methods and tools will be helpful for the discovery of lead compounds from phytochemicals and understanding the molecular mechanism of action of TCM in the prevention and control of the other diseases.

METHODS

A search conducting in scientific databases (PubMed, Science Direct, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and Web of Science) found a total of 2172 articles, which were retrieved via web interface of the following websites. After applying some inclusion and exclusion criteria and full-text screening, only 292 articles were collected as eligible articles.

RESULTS

In this review, we highlight three main categories of computational approaches including structure-based, knowledge-mining (artificial intelligence) and network-based approaches. The most commonly used database, molecular docking tool, and MD simulation software include TCMSP, AutoDock Vina, and GROMACS, respectively. Network-based approaches were mainly provided to help readers understanding the complex mechanisms of multiple TCM ingredients, targets, diseases, and networks.

CONCLUSION

Computational approaches have been broadly applied to the research of phytochemicals and TCM against COVID-19, and played a significant role in drug discovery and development in terms of the financial and time saving.

Extracellular Vesicles and Circulating Tumour Cells - complementary liquid biopsies or standalone concepts?

Liquid biopsies do promise a lot, but are they keeping it? In the past decade, additional novel biomarkers qualified to be called like that, of which, some took necessary hurdles resulting in FDA approval and clinical use. Some others are since a while around, well known and were once regarded to be a game changer in cancer diagnosis or cancer screening. But, during their clinical use limitations were observed from statistical significance and questions raised regarding their robustness, that eventually led to be dropped from associated clinical guidelines for certain applications including cancer diagnosis. The purpose of this review isn't to give a broad overview of all current liquid biopsy as biomarkers, weight them and promise a brighter future in cancer prevention, but rather to take a deeper look on two of those who do qualify to be called liquid biopsies now or then. These two are probably of greatest interest conceptually and methodically, and likely have the highest chances to be in clinical use soon, with a portfolio extension over their original conceptual usage. We aim to dig deeper beyond cancer diagnosis or cancer screening. Actually, we aim to review in depth extracellular vesicles (EVs) and compare with circulating tumour cells (CTCs). The latter methodology is partially FDA approved and in clinical use. We will lay out similarities as taking advantage of surface antigens on EVs and CTCs in case of characterization and quantification. But drawing readers' attention to downstream application based on capture/isolation methodology and simply on their overall nature, here apparently being living material eventually recoverable as CTCs are vs. dead material with transient effects on recipient cell as in case of EVs. All this we try to bring in perspective, compare and conclude towards which future direction we are aiming for, or should aim for. Do we announce a winner between CTCs vs EVs? No, but we provide good reasons to intensify research on them.

Unifying Different Cancer Theories in a Unique Tumour Model: Chronic Inflammation and Deaminases as Meeting Points

The increase in cancer incidences shows that there is a need to better understand tumour heterogeneity to achieve efficient treatments. Interestingly, there are several common features among almost all types of cancers, with chronic inflammation induction and deaminase dysfunctions singled out. Deaminases are a family of enzymes with nucleotide-editing capacity, which are classified into two main groups: DNA-based and RNA-based. Remarkably, a close relationship between inflammation and the dysregulation of these molecules has been widely documented, which may explain the characteristic intratumor heterogeneity, both at DNA and transcriptional levels. Indeed, heterogeneity in cancer makes it difficult to establish a unique tumour progression model. Currently, there are three main cancer models—stochastic, hierarchic, and dynamic—although there is no consensus on which one better resembles cancer biology because they are usually overly simplified. Here, to accurately explain tumour progression, we propose interactions among chronic inflammation, deaminases dysregulation, intratumor genetic heterogeneity, cancer phenotypic plasticity, and even the previously proposed appearance of cancer stem-like cell populations in the edges of advanced solid tumour masses (instead of being the cells of origin of primary malignancies). The new tumour development model proposed in this study does not contradict previously accepted models and it may open up a window to interesting therapeutic approaches.

Candidate genes for infertility: an in-silico study based on cytogenetic analysis

Background

The cause of infertility remains unclear in a significant proportion of reproductive-age couples who fail to conceive naturally. Chromosomal aberrations have been identified as one of the main genetic causes of male and female infertility. Structural chromosomal aberrations may disrupt the functioning of various genes, some of which may be important for fertility. The present study aims to identify candidate genes and putative functional interaction networks involved in male and female infertility using cytogenetic data from cultured peripheral blood lymphocytes of infertile patients.

Methods

Karyotypic analyses was done in 201 infertile patients (100 males and 101 females) and 201 age and gender matched healthy controls (100 males and 101 females) after 72 h peripheral lymphocyte culturing and GTG banding, followed by bioinformatic analysis using Cytoscape v3.8.2 and Metascape.

Results

Several chromosomal regions with a significantly higher frequency of structural aberrations were identified in the infertile males (5q2, 10q2, and 17q2) and females (6q2, 16q2, and Xq2). Segregation of the patients based on type of infertility (primary v/s secondary infertility) led to the identification of chromosomal regions with a significantly higher frequency of structural aberrations exclusively within the infertile males (5q2, 17q2) and females (16q2) with primary infertility. Cytoscape identified two networks specific to these regions: a male specific network with 99 genes and a female specific network with 109 genes. The top enriched GO terms within the male and female infertility networks were “skeletal system morphogenesis” and “mRNA transport” respectively. PSME3, PSMD3, and CDC27 were the top 3 hub genes identified within the male infertility network. Similarly, UPF3B, IRF8, and PSMB1 were the top 3 hub genes identified with the female infertility network. Among the hub genes identified in the male- and female-specific networks, PSMB1, PSMD3, and PSME3 are functional components of the proteasome complex. These hub genes have a limited number of reports related to their respective roles in maintenance of fertility in mice model and humans and require validation in further studies.

Conclusion

The candidate genes predicted in the present study can serve as targets for future research on infertility.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-022-01320-x.

Interplay between exosomes and autophagy machinery in pain management: State of the art

Despite recent progress regarding inexpensive medical approaches, many individuals suffer from moderate to severe pain globally. The discovery and advent of exosomes, as biological nano-sized vesicles, has revolutionized current knowledge about underlying mechanisms associated with several pathological conditions. Indeed, these particles are touted as biological bio-shuttles with the potential to carry specific signaling biomolecules to cells in proximity and remote sites, maintaining cell-to-cell communication in a paracrine manner. A piece of evidence points to an intricate relationship between exosome biogenesis and autophagy signaling pathways at different molecular levels. A close collaboration of autophagic response with exosome release can affect the body's hemostasis and physiology of different cell types. This review is a preliminary attempt to highlight the possible interface of autophagy flux and exosome biogenesis on pain management with a special focus on neuropathic pain. It is thought that this review article will help us to understand the interplay of autophagic response and exosome biogenesis in the management of pain under pathological conditions. The application of therapies targeting autophagy pathway and exosome abscission can be an alternative strategy in the regulation of pain.

Theaflavin 3-gallate inhibits the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2 and reduces its count in vitro

The main protease (M^pro) of SARS-CoV-2 has been recognized as an attractive drug target because of its central role in viral replication. Our previous preliminary molecular docking studies showed that theaflavin 3-gallate (a natural bioactive molecule derived from theaflavin and found in high abundance in black tea) exhibited better docking scores than repurposed drugs (Atazanavir, Darunavir, Lopinavir). In this study, conventional and steered MD-simulations analyses revealed stronger interactions of theaflavin 3-gallate with the active site residues of M^pro than theaflavin and a standard molecule GC373 (a known inhibitor of M^pro and novel broad-spectrum anti-viral agent). Theaflavin 3-gallate inhibited M^pro protein of SARS-CoV-2 with an IC₅₀ value of 18.48 ± 1.29 μM. Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 (Indian/a3i clade/2020 isolate) with 200 μM of theaflavin 3-gallate in vitro using Vero cells and quantifying viral transcripts demonstrated reduction of viral count by 75% (viral particles reduced from Log10^6.7 to Log10^6.1). Overall, our findings suggest that theaflavin 3-gallate effectively targets the M^pro thus limiting the replication of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in vitro.

Application of exosome-derived noncoding RNAs in bone regeneration: Opportunities and challenges

With advances in the fields of regenerative medicine, cell-free therapy has received increased attention. Exosomes have a variety of endogenous properties that provide stability for molecular transport across biological barriers to cells, as a form of cell-to-cell communication that regulates function and phenotype. In addition, exosomes are an important component of paracrine signaling in stem-cell-based therapy and can be used as a stand-alone therapy or as a drug delivery system. The remarkable potential of exosomes has paved the pathway for cell-free treatment in bone regeneration. Exosomes are enriched in distinct noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs, long ncRNAs and circular RNAs. Different ncRNAs have multiple functions. Altered expression of ncRNA in exosomes is associated with the regenerative potential and development of various diseases, such as femoral head osteonecrosis, myocardial infarction, and cancer. Although there is increasing evidence that exosome-derived ncRNAs (exo-ncRNAs) have the potential for bone regeneration, the detailed mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we review the biogenesis of exo-ncRNA and the effects of ncRNAs on angiogenesis and osteoblast- and osteoclast-related pathways in different diseases. However, there are still many unsolved problems and challenges in the clinical application of ncRNA; for instance, production, storage, targeted delivery and therapeutic potency assessment. Advancements in exo-ncRNA methods and design will promote the development of therapeutics, revolutionizing the present landscape.

Epitranscriptomics Changes the Play: m6A RNA Modifications in Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that is essential for cellular and organismal homeostasis. Any irregularities that disturb the balance between apoptosis and cell survival have severe implications, such as improper development or life-threatening diseases. Thus, it is highly critical to maintain a proper rate of apoptosis throughout development. In fact, several complex transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms exist in eukaryotes to critically regulate the rate of apoptotic processes. Recent studies suggest that not only RNA sequences but also their modifications, such as m⁶A methylation, play a fundamental role in these transcriptional and posttranscriptional processes. A specific set of proteins, called writer, eraser, and reader of m⁶A marks, modulate the rate of apoptosis by determining the m⁶A repertoire and the fate of certain transcripts associated with apoptosis. In this Review, we will cover the dynamic m⁶A RNA modifications and their impact on modulation of apoptosis.

Network for network concept offers new insights into host- SARS-CoV-2 protein interactions and potential novel targets for developing antiviral drugs

SARS-CoV-2, the causal agent of COVID-19, is primarily a pulmonary virus that can directly or indirectly infect several organs. Despite many studies carried out during the current COVID-19 pandemic, some pathological features of SARS-CoV-2 have remained unclear. It has been recently attempted to address the current knowledge gaps on the viral pathogenicity and pathological mechanisms via cellular-level tropism of SARS-CoV-2 using human proteomics, visualization of virus-host protein-protein interactions (PPIs), and enrichment analysis of experimental results. The synergistic use of models and methods that rely on graph theory has enabled the visualization and analysis of the molecular context of virus/host PPIs. We review current knowledge on the SARS-COV-2/host interactome cascade involved in the viral pathogenicity through the graph theory concept and highlight the hub proteins in the intra-viral network that create a subnet with a small number of host central proteins, leading to cell disintegration and infectivity. Then we discuss the putative principle of the "gene-for-gene and "network for network" concepts as platforms for future directions toward designing efficient anti-viral therapies.

Exosomes from prostate cancer cell lines: Isolation optimisation and characterisation

Exosomes are considered to be a rich source of biomarkers, hence in this article we examine the best procedure for their isolation. We examine several isolation procedures, exosome storage conditions and other conditions affecting exosome production by prostate cell lines. We selected four different commercially available kits based on different principles to achieve exosome isolation, the best being magnetic-based. In addition, we found storage at - 20 °C to be good for storing isolated exosomes and that exosomes were produced from the cancerous prostate cell line 22Rv1 in much greater amounts than the non-cancerous prostate cell line RWPE1. We also found differences in the response of both cell lines in the production of exosomes as a result of stress, i.e. exposure to hydrogen peroxide and starvation. The effect of Triton X-100 on exosome lysis was examined using two different surfactant concentrations by analysis of the exosome count and change in the exosome size. The final part of the article details the advantages of the use of a 2D biochip prepared in-house over a commercially available 3D biochip for monitoring the interaction of exosomes via its surface receptors (CD63) with an immobilised ligand (anti-CD63 antibodies) using surface plasmon resonance. The final experiment shows the potential of lectin fluorescent microarrays for the analysis of glycans present in lysed exosomes.

Role of Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)-Derived exosomes in tumor progression and survival

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a quickly aggressive hematopoietic disorder that progress due to the accumulation and clonal expansion of immature myeloid cells. Despite the latest developments in AML treatment, repeated relapses and drug resistance remain one of the major challenges in treatment of leukemia. Currently, it is well known that the components of the tumor microenvironment such as cellular and non-cellular elements play a critical function in treatment failures of AML, also they are most common cause of complications including suppression of hematopoiesis. Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles (EVs) that transfer signaling molecules and have attracted a large amount of attention due to their important role in inter-cellular communication in health and disease. Exosomes participate in the survival and chemoresistance of many leukemia through transferring their rich cargos of molecules including miRNAs, growth factors, and cytokines. The key producers of exosomes that mainly participate to AML pathogenesis are bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSCs) and AML cell themselves. These cells release an enormous number of exosomes that affect several target cells such as natural killer (NK) and hematopoietic stem cells to the development of leukemia proliferation and progression. In the present study, a comprehensive review of the literature has been done to briefly discuss the biology of exosomes and highlight the role of exosomes derived from AML in the progress of acute myeloid leukemia.

Lectins and lectibodies: potential promising antiviral agents

In nature, lectins are widely dispersed proteins that selectively recognize and bind to carbohydrates and glycoconjugates via reversible bonds at specific binding sites. Many viral diseases have been treated with lectins due to their wide range of structures, specificity for carbohydrates, and ability to bind carbohydrates. Through hemagglutination assays, these proteins can be detected interacting with various carbohydrates on the surface of cells and viral envelopes. This review discusses the most robust lectins and their rationally engineered versions, such as lectibodies, as antiviral proteins. Fusion of lectin and antibody’s crystallizable fragment (Fc) of immunoglobulin G (IgG) produces a molecule called a “lectibody” that can act as a carbohydrate-targeting antibody. Lectibodies can not only bind to the surface glycoproteins via their lectins and neutralize and clear viruses or infected cells by viruses but also perform Fc-mediated antibody effector functions. These functions include complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), and antibody-dependent cell-mediated phagocytosis (ADCP). In addition to entering host cells, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein S1 binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and downregulates it and type I interferons in a way that may lead to lung disease. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope are heavily glycosylated, which could make them a major target for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and therapeutic drugs. Lectibodies can lead to neutralization and clearance of viruses and cells infected by viruses by binding to glycans located on the envelope surface (e.g., the heavily glycosylated SARS-CoV-2 spike protein).

Exosomal Metabolic Signatures Are Associated with Differential Response to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Patients with Breast Cancer

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) is commonly used in breast cancer (BC) patients to increase eligibility for breast-conserving surgery. Only 30% of patients with BC show pathologic complete response (pCR) after NAC, and residual disease (RD) is associated with poor long-term prognosis. A critical barrier to improving NAC outcomes in patients with BC is the limited understanding of the mechanisms underlying differential treatment outcomes. In this study, we evaluated the ability of exosomal metabolic profiles to predict NAC response in patients with BC. Exosomes isolated from the plasma of patients after NAC were used for metabolomic analyses to identify exosomal metabolic signatures associated with the NAC response. Among the 16 BC patients who received NAC, eight had a pCR, and eight had RD. Patients with RD had 2.52-fold higher exosome concentration in their plasma than those with pCR and showed significant enrichment of various metabolic pathways, including citrate cycle, urea cycle, porphyrin metabolism, glycolysis, and gluconeogenesis. Additionally, the relative exosomal levels of succinate and lactate were significantly higher in patients with RD than in those with pCR. These data suggest that plasma exosomal metabolic signatures could be associated with differential NAC outcomes in BC patients and provide insight into the metabolic determinants of NAC response in patients with BC.

Transfer of IGF2BP3 Through Ara-C-Induced Apoptotic Bodies Promotes Survival of Recipient Cells

Cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C) has been the standard therapeutic agent for myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and adult acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients for decades. Considerable progress has been made in development of new treatments for MDS/AML patients, but drug resistance remains a major clinical problem. Apoptotic bodies (ABs), produced by late apoptotic cells, can enclose bioactive components that affect cell-cell interactions and disease progression. We isolated and identified drug-induced ABs from Ara-C-tolerance cells. Treatment of sensitive cells with Ara-C-induced ABs resulted in Ara-C-resistant phenotype. We further investigated components and functions of Ara-C-induced ABs. Proteomics analysis in combination with mass spectrometry revealed that Ara-C-induced ABs carried numerous RNA-binding proteins, notably including insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3). Delivery of AB-encapsulated IGF2BP3 promoted survival of recipient cells by activating PI3K-AKT and p42-44 MAPK pathways. High IGF2BP3 level in ABs from MDS/AML patient plasma was correlated with poor overall survival. Our findings demonstrate that AB-derived IGF2BP3 plays an essential role in acquired Ara-C resistance in MDS/AML patients, and is a potential therapeutic target for suppression of Ara-C resistance.

The Role of Cancer Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Cancer Progression

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a small portion of tumor cells with self-renewal ability in tumor tissues and are a key factor in tumor resistance, recurrence, and metastasis. CSCs produce a large number of exosomes through various mechanisms, such as paracrine and autocrine signaling. Studies have shown that CSC-derived exosomes (CSC-Exos) carry a variety of gene mutations and specific epigenetic modifications indicative of unique cell phenotypes and metabolic pathways, enabling exchange of information in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote tumor invasion and metastasis. In addition, CSC-Exos carry a variety of metabolites, especially proteins and miRNAs, which can activate signaling pathways to further promote tumor development. CSC-Exos have dual effects on cancer development. Due to advances in liquid biopsy technology for early cancer detection, CSCs-Exos may become an important tool for early cancer diagnosis and therapeutic drug delivery. In this article, we will review how CSC-Exos exert the above effects based on the above two aspects and explore their mechanism of action.