Ixodid ticks and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens of the Western Balkans

Ixodid ticks are distributed across all countries of the Western Balkans, with a high diversity of species. Many of these species serve as vectors of pathogens of veterinary and medical importance. Given the scattered data from Western Balkan countries, we have conducted a comprehensive review of available literature, including some historical data, with the aim to compile information about all recorded tick species and associated zoonotic pathogens in this region. Based on the collected data, the tick fauna of the Western Balkans encompasses 32 tick species belonging to five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. A range of pathogens responsible for human diseases has also been documented, including viruses, bacteria and parasites. In this review, we emphasize the necessity for integrated surveillance and reporting, urging authorities to foster research by providing financial support. Additionally, international and interdisciplinary collaborations should be encouraged that include the exchange of expertise, experiences and resources. The present collaborative effort can effectively address gaps in our knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases.

The Price of Hospital Reshaping: Nasal Myiasis Caused by Flesh Fly (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) in Reallocated COVID-19 Intensive Care Unit

Myiasis is a condition characterized by fly larvae infestation, most common in tropical regions, but with a risk of occurring anywhere in the world. Here, we report a case of nasal myiasis caused by a sarcophagid fly in a critically ill COVID-19 patient hospitalized in a reallocated ICU department in Serbia and discuss procedures that could prevent the occurrence of similar incidents in reallocated ICU departments worldwide.

Unexpected TBEV Seropositivity in Serbian Patients Who Recovered from Viral Meningitis and Encephalitis

The tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes a life-threatening disease named Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). The clinical symptoms associated with TBE range from non-specific to severe inflammation of the central nervous system and are very similar to the clinical presentation of other viral meningitis/encephalitis. In consequence, TBE is often misclassified by clinical physicians, mainly in the non-identified high-risk areas where none or only a few TBE cases have been reported. Considering this situation, we hypothesized that among persons from northern Serbia who recovered from viral meningitis or encephalitis, there would be evidence of TBEV infection. To test this hypothesis, in this observational study, we evaluated the seroreactivity against TBEV antigens in patients from northern Serbia who were hospitalized due to viral meningitis and/or viral encephalitis of unknown etiology. Three cases of seroreactivity to TBEV antigens were discovered among convalescent patients who recovered from viral meningitis and/or encephalitis and accepted to participate in the study (n = 15). The clinical and laboratory findings of these patients overlap with that of seronegative convalescent patients. Although TBE has been a notifiable disease in Serbia since 2004, there is no active TBE surveillance program for the serologic or molecular screening of TBEV infection in humans in the country. This study highlights the necessity to increase the awareness of TBE among physicians and perform active and systematic screening of TBEV antibodies among patients with viral meningitis and/or encephalitis.

Novel extraction of polyphenols from sour cherry pomace using natural deep eutectic solvents - Ultrafast microwave-assisted NADES preparation and extraction

In this work, new approaches for the green extraction of polyphenols from sour cherry pomace were explored. Three Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES) systems based on choline chloride (ChCl) as a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) and malic acid, urea, and fructose (MalA, Ur, and Fru) as hydrogen bond donors (HBD) were used. NADES systems were prepared by heating and stirring (H&S), ultrasound (US), and microwave (MW) methods. It was found that MW-assisted preparation was the fastest requiring less than 30 s. Polyphenol extraction from cherry pomace was performed also by three mentioned methods, and compared with conventional methods. MW extraction was the most rapid with less than 5 min necessary for the extract preparation. All three NADES systems were highly efficient for anthocyanin extraction, but the most efficient was ChCl:MalA system. Extract based on ChCl:MalA system was for 62.33% more efficient for anthocyanin extraction comparing with the conventional solvent.

The evaluation of phenolic content, in vitro antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Mentha piperita extracts obtained by natural deep eutectic solvents

The focus of this study was to evaluate whether six choline chloride-based natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) could serve as solvents for the extraction of bioactives from the leaves of Mentha piperita. NADES extracted significantly higher amounts of phenols from peppermint than 70% ethanol and may be useful in the extraction of targeted major compounds from peppermint, like rosmarinic acid, at a similar level as 70% ethanol. The microdilution method for in vitro antibacterial activity showed that all NADES exhibit bacterial growth inhibition at a lower concentration than 70% ethanol, especially NADESs containing organic acids. The majority of NADES extracts neutralize DPPH radical at a lower concentration than conventional solvent and showed similar ability to reduce Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ ions in FRAP assay. NADES can be useful in the isolation of phenolic compounds from plant sources and should be considered as novel, sustainable, and low-cost solvents with a variety of applications.

Subtyping Blastocystis in pigs and humans revealed unusual avian-specific subtype ST6 in humans in Serbia

Blastocystis is a common protist colonizing the gastrointestinal tract of humans and various animals. The first subtyping of Blastocystis isolates in pigs and humans in Serbia revealed unusual avian-specific subtype ST6 in humans. In total, 48 pig faecal specimens collected on seven pig farms and 50 human faecal specimens positive to Blastocystis by microscopic examination were selected for the study. Eleven randomly selected PCR-positive pig samples and 10 samples from human patients (with gastrointestinal complaints) were subjected to SSU rDNA sequencing. Three subtypes were identified (ST3, ST5 and ST6) by phylogenetic analysis. ST5 was found in all pig samples; while in human samples, we detected ST3 and ST6. The latter subtype is relatively uncommon in Europe and highly adapted to avian hosts; therefore, the possibility of sporadic zoonotic transmission to human patients should not be ignored.

Blood Metabolic and Hematology Parameters and Survivorship in Mice after Application of the Rabies Challenge Virus Standard in Vaccine Potency Test

Background: Rabies virus can cause intensive and lethal infection of the central nervous system (CNS) in animals and humans. Metabolic examinations are conducted at the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and it has been found that many metabolic changes occur during RABV infection. However, although it is a neurotropic virus, it can cause damage to extraneural tissues - lungs, heart, kidneys and liver. This study aimed to determine differences in metabolic, endocrinology and hematologic parameters in blood of mice after application of rabies challenge with virus standard 27 strain (CVS-27).Materials, Methods & Results: This study included 30 survived, and 30 dead mice that were part of the standard procedure of NIH (National Institute of Health) test in Pasteur Institute in Novi Sad. Tests were performed in the following order: two groups of mice were vaccinated in a 7 day period with different dilutions of standard vaccine and the examined vaccine. Seven days after the last vaccination, immunized animals and animals in the control group received test virus CVS-27. Blood samples were collected from a heart puncture. Differences in hematologic and biochemical parameters were determined by t-test. Due to a high number of blood parameters, we performed a joint analysis of multiple dependent variables. Higher pH value and higher concentrations of glucose, cholesterol, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), albumin, urea, creatinine, α-amylase, magnesium (Mg), nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and lactate were noted in dead mice. Higher granulocytes and mean platelet volume (MPV) were noted in mice which died, but also reduced lymphocytes, erythrocytes, haemoglobin, hematocrit and platelets count. Higher values of insulin, cortisol and HOMA-IR (homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance) were noted in the group of dead mice compared to the surviving one. Reduced QUICKI (quantitative insulin sensitivity check index) value was noted in mice which died compared to the surviving group. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that components 1 and 2 explain 38.7 of variance and that these two compounds are enough for the distinction between the animals which dies and those that survived. It was found that the cortisol, insulin, HOMAIR, NEFA, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactic acid, LDH and granulocyte could explain the variance of the first component, which highly correlated with the first principal component. Also, pH level, glucose, creatinine, albumin and BHB showed significant importance. A positive correlation was shown between those parameters.Discussion: Mice that died during NIH test after applying CVS-27 expressed more significant stress (higher cortisol level). Disturbances of energy metabolism were noted (more significant catabolism of lipids and insulin resistance), changes of protein metabolism caused by muscle load (urea, creatinine, AST and LDH) and general disturbances of acid-base status (higher pH) and dehydration (increased albumin) were also noted in mice that died. Values of hematologic parameters showed minor influence at total variability and are a bit correlated with metabolic changes. In factor analysis, component 1 was determined from numerous parameters. Correlations between component 1 and cortisol, HOMA-IR, lactates, insulin, AST and LDH were noted. It completely determines survived and dead animals after CVS-27 during NIH test. Disturbances in blood parameters showed an analogy with previous studies of CNS. Given parameters can be very useful in clinical-pathological analysis in RABV infection.

Tick-borne diseases and co-infection: Current considerations

Over recent years, a multitude of pathogens have been reported to be tick-borne. Given this, it is unsurprising that these might co-exist within the same tick, however our understanding of the interactions of these agents both within the tick and vertebrate host remains poorly defined. Despite the rich diversity of ticks, relatively few regularly feed on humans, 12 belonging to argasid and 20 ixodid species, and literature on co-infection is only available for a few of these species. The interplay of various pathogen combinations upon the vertebrate host and tick vector represents a current knowledge gap. The impact of co-infection in humans further extends into diagnostic challenges arising when multiple pathogens are encountered and we have little current data upon which to make therapeutic recommendations for those with multiple infections. Despite these short-comings, there is now increasing recognition of co-infections and current research efforts are providing valuable insights into dynamics of pathogen interactions whether they facilitate or antagonise each other. Much of this existing data is focussed upon simultaneous infection, however the consequences of sequential infection also need to be addressed. To this end, it is timely to review current understanding and highlight those areas still to address.

Seroepidemiological Study of Canine and Human Dirofilariasis in the Endemic Region of Northern Serbia

Dirofilariasis is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused mainly by Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens that affect dogs and humans all over the world. Serbia is considered an endemic country to both forms of dirofilariasis, although most of the population is concentrated in the north of the country. The aims of this study were to show the prevalence of D. immitis and D. repens in dogs and the seroprevalence in humans compared to previous studies in Northern Serbia. In total, 346 dog sera samples and 265 human samples were analyzed. Dog blood samples were analyzed using the modified Knott's method to check whether there were Dirofilaria spp. microfilariae and serum samples were checked by a commercial D. immitis antigen test. Human serum samples were analyzed with a non-commercial ELISA for detection of specific anti-D. immitis, anti-D. repens, and anti-Wolbachia IgG antibodies, and confirmed by western blotting. The overall prevalence for Dirofilaria spp. in dogs was 29.19%. The overall prevalence for D. immitis was 26.30%. The percentages of D. immitis and D. repens microfilaremia in dogs were 25.72 and 1.45%, respectively, while D. immitis./D. repens microfilaremia co-infections were also 1.45%. The overall seroprevalence for Dirofilaria spp. in humans was 3.77%. The overall seroprevalence for D. immitis was 1.51, 1.13% for D. repens, and for D. immitis/D. repens co-infections was 1.13%. The results indicate that D. immitis and D. repens are present in dogs and humans in the province of Vojvodina, in the northern part of Serbia. It is most likely associated with the presence of many rivers, the climate, and presence of mosquitoes in the area, so there could be a real public health risk.

ACCIDENTAL FINDING OF DIROFILARIA REPENS IN DOG DURING THE QUALITY CONTROL OF SEMEN – CASE REPORT

  A nine-year-old male dog of Doberman breed was taken to the laboratory for animal reproduction of the Scientific Veterinary Institute „Novi Sad“ for semen quality control. The sample of the ejaculate was taken without difficulty; however, the sample contained a significant amount of fresh blood (total ejaculate volume was 5 ml). The assessment of semen quality from such sample was not possible because blood components mask the spermatozoa. Nevertheless, the sample of ejaculate drop was placed for microscopic observation and analysis. In the semen, a lot of blood cells and only a few spermatozoids (mostly not moving) were found; however, something else was observed - the presence of a live motile organism, long-shaped, looking very much like a larval stage of a parasite Dirofilaria sp. Next day, the blood sample was taken for the analysis for dirofilariosis. The result of the ELISA test for Dirofilaria immitis antigen was negative indicating the absence of adult worms of Dirofilaria immitis. The result of modified Knott test showed the presence of larval stages of Dirofilaria repens.

PREVALENCE OF SMALL RUMINANT LENTIVIRUS INFECTIONS IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN SOME REGIONS OF VOJVODINA PROVINCE

Small Ruminant Lentivirus causes a chronic lifelong, multisystemic diseases in sheep and goats with or without clinical manifestation. Maedi-visna virus (MVV) and Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) are often considered together as small ruminants lentivirus (SRLV) due to their phylogenetic correlation and the interspecies transmission between sheep and goats. During the period of four years, from 2015-2018, an annual monitoring was done on male animals (rams and bucks) used for breeding, for determination of antibodies against SRLV with ELISA serological method. In total, serum samples from 6732  animals were analyzed. During the study period, seroprevalence for small ruminant lentivirus has rised from 4,17% to 16,21%, with an overall value of 12% for the whole period. Over the years seroprevalence has been changing with increasing tendency. The highest seroprevalence in rams was in 2018, when the largest number of samples was examined. In bucks, the highest number of positive samples was found in 2015. From 2014 until 2018, the overall seroprevalence in rams and bucks has increased significantly. From the study results it can be seen that annual monitoring program is very important and has to be held in the future in order to have the disease under control. The program helps in rising the awareness and knowledge of the owners about SRLV and the importance of breeding seronegative animals.

A new Borrelia on the block: Borrelia miyamotoi - a human health risk?

Background

Borrelia miyamotoi clusters phylogenetically among relapsing fever borreliae, but is transmitted by hard ticks. Recent recognition as a human pathogen has intensified research into its ecology and pathogenic potential.

Aims

We aimed to provide a timely critical integrative evaluation of our knowledge on B. miyamotoi, to assess its public health relevance and guide future research.

Methods

This narrative review used peer-reviewed literature in English from January 1994 to December 2018.

Results

Borrelia miyamotoi occurs in the world’s northern hemisphere where it co-circulates with B. burgdorferi sensu lato, which causes Lyme disease. The two borreliae have overlapping vertebrate and tick hosts. While ticks serve as vectors for both species, they are also reservoirs for B. miyamotoi. Three B. miyamotoi genotypes are described, but further diversity is being recognised. The lack of sufficient cultivable isolates and vertebrate models compromise investigation of human infection and its consequences. Our understanding mainly originates from limited case series. In these, human infections mostly present as influenza-like illness, with relapsing fever in sporadic cases and neurological disease reported in immunocompromised patients. Unspecific clinical presentation, also occasionally resulting from Lyme- or other co-infections, complicates diagnosis, likely contributing to under-reporting. Diagnostics mainly employ PCR and serology. Borrelia miyamotoi infections are treated with antimicrobials according to regimes used for Lyme disease.

Conclusions

With co-infection of tick-borne pathogens being commonplace, diagnostic improvements remain important. Developing in vivo models might allow more insight into human pathogenesis. Continued ecological and human case studies are key to better epidemiological understanding, guiding intervention strategies.

Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis in Dogs from Shelters in Vojvodina, Serbia

Background: Dirofilaria immitis is vector borne parasite of carnivores, with zoonotic potential, endemic in many parts of the world, including Europe. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis infection in dogs from shelters, especially compared to their lifestyle. Dogs living in shelters in Serbia may be at high risk of acquiring vector borne pathogens, mainly because most of them live outside in pens and backyards, in contact with vectors. Also, dogs in shelters are not always regularly treated against ectoparasites, thus, representing an easy feeding source for the vectors. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis infection in dogs from 5 shelters in South Bačka and Central Banat districts, in Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Northern part of Serbia. Also, the objective was to compare the relation of infection with Dirofiaria immitis with age, sex, type of keeping the animals and preventive treatment in dogs.Materials, Methods & Results: Between May 2017 and October 2019, blood samples were collected from 336 randomly selected dogs from 5 shelters in 2 districts, South Bačka and Central Banat districts, in Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Northern part of Serbia. The epidemiological survey has been conducted with all of the dogs involved in this research. The survey was designed to collect data about sex, age, lifestyles, food type, treatment against mosquitoes with insecticides and filarioid worms with macrocyclic lactones, regular testing for Dirofilaria infections. The presence of circulating microfilariae was examined using a modified Knott’s test. For the presence of circulating adult female Dirofilaria immitis antigen, serum samples were tested by commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, which reacts to antigen of female Dirofilaria. In total, 336 dogs were examined for the presence of Dirofilaria immitis antigen. For that dog population which came from 5 shelters, total prevalence was 25.30%. Most of the positive findings were observed in a shelter where dogs lived exclusively outdoors in fenced yards in big groups and they were partly tested for heartworm infections from time to time. These dogs were not treated with macrocyclic lactones, against mosquitoes with insecticides or filarioid worms. The prevalence in this shelter was 56.36%. On the contrary to that, the lowest positive findings were detected in the shelter, where dogs were allowed to move freely between outside and indoors and they were also provided with accommodation indoors. These dogs have been regularly tested for Dirofilaria infections and treated against mosquitoes with insecticides and filarioid worms with macrocyclic lactones. In this shelter the seroprevalence was 7.69%. Microfilariae of Dirofilaria immitis were detected, by modified Knott’s test, in all of the antigen positive dog samples; except in 2 dogs from one shelter. Discussion: This study shows persistence of cardiopulmonary dirofiariosis in shelter dogs under different maintaining conditions. By comparing the data during the last 17 years, it can be stated that there is a constant increase of prevalence for Dirofilaria immitis in dogs in northern part of Serbia over the years. The results gained in this study are important from the veterinary point of view, but also from the Public Health point of view.

Relationship of Circulating Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α) and Insulin Secretion and Resistance in Euglycaemic Dogs

Background: Insulin resistance is a state that is characterized with reduced sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin. It can be related with increased level of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in dogs. Insulin resistance can be evaluated by homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR, HOMA-β). The aim of this study was to determine correlation of circulating TNF-α level with insulin production and insulin resistance indexes in euglycaemic dogs. Materials, Methods & Results: Seventydogs of normal body score were included in this study. After blood sampling levels of glucose, insulin and TNF-α were determined and indexes HOMA-IR and HOMA-β were calculated. Three groups in accordance to TNF-α levels were formed: the first-TNF-α 0-2.0 pg/mL, the second-TNF-α below median (2.1-17.0 pg/mL) and the third-TNF-α above median (17.1-51.8 pg/mL). Differences in insulin and glucose levels, HOMA-IR and HOMA-β were determined in all three groups. ANOVA and posthock LSD analyses were used. Correlation between HOMA-IR and HOMA-β was determined. Linear regression between HOMA-β/HOMA-IR ratio and glucose concentration was calculated. SPSS statistical program was used (IBM). Highest insulin level was detected in the second group and the lowest was detected in the third group. The lowest glucose level was detected in the first group. The highest value of HOMA-β index was noted in the first group and it decreases with TNF-α increase. The highest HOMA-IR value was detected in the second group and the lowest was in the third group. Positive correlation was noted between HOMA-IR and HOMA-β. Significant linear correlation was noted between glucose levels in function of HOMA-β/HOMA-IR (R2= 0.51-0.78, P = 0.0007). The first group showed the minor change of glucose level (b= 0.29 mmol/L). In the third group the greatest change of glucose level in function of HOMA-β/HOMA-IR was noted (b= 0.52 mmol/L). In the third group the highest increase of glucose level followed by decrease in HOMA-β/HOMA-IR ratio was noted.  Discussion: Increase of TNF-α followed by increase of insulin was noted in the second group. That indicates reduced insulin action and compensatory increase in his concentrations in order to achieve the same effect. TNF-α induces reduction in expression of glucose transporter 4 that is insulin-regulating hormone. Serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 that is induced by TNF-α causes inhibition of insulin receptors. These actions cause insulin resistance and compensatory increase in insulin secretion. Increased tissue resistance is reflected in increased HOMA-IR index which is directly associated with insulin and glucose level. Increase of insulin value and HOMA-IR index were noted in second group. This indicates the influence of TNF-α on insulin resistance. The lowest insulin level was noted in the third group of dogs. Decrease in production and secretion leads to reduction in circulating insulin and can be evaluated by HOMA-β index. The highest value of this index was noted in first group and decreases with TNF-α increase. This can be related with apoptotic effect that TNF-α has on beta- pancreatic cells. Increase of HOMA-β index causes increase of HOMA-IR. This is indication of increased peripheral resistance. Compensatory mechanism for that state is increased insulin secretion. Glucose level will increase more during increase of HOMA-IR and decrease of HOMA-β. This indicates that TNF-α regulates glucose level directly and explains differences in glucose concentrations in dogs with different concentrations of TNF-α showed. Values of insulin resistance indexes, glucose and insulin were affected by circulating concentration of TNF-α. The most unfavorable change in glucose concentration based on insulin production and tissue resistance was founded in dogs with the highest circulating TNF-α concentration in blood. 

Tick-borne infections of dogs in Serbia: A review of research

Increased prevalence of tick-borne disease in humans and animals is an important public health issue. Dogs can be clinically ill, reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens, or sentinel populations for research. Certainly, small-scale research has been conducted in dogs and this review will focus on the recent studies of emergent and re-emergent tick-borne pathogens in dogs in Serbia. Babesiosis stands out as the most common and important tick-borne disease in dogs. In addition to this pathogen, the presence of Hepatozoon canis and ?Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum? in the blood of dogs was proved using molecular methods. Seroreactivity in dogs has been proven for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) complex, Ehrlichia canis, Ehrlichia ewingii, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys, Rickettsia conorii, and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The presence of B. burgdorferi s.l. complex, A. phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp. from the group of spotted fevers, and TBEV in ticks indicates the geographical distribution and potential for infecting humans, dogs, and other animals in Serbia. Further systematic, comprehensive, well designed, bacteriological, virological, parasitological, epidemiological, clinical (infectological), and acarological research is needed in Serbia.

Seroprevalence of Leishmania spp. in dogs in northern Serbia

Leishmaniosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Leishmania spp. Serbia was an endemic region for this disease until the second half of the 20th century. Nowadays, canine leishmaniosis appears to be a re-emerging vector-borne disease in Serbia. Its spread is enabled by the presence of Phlebotomus spp. sandflies in this region. The objective of this study was to establish the seroprevalence of Leishmania spp. in dogs being kept in shelters in Serbia and compare those that apply and those that do not apply prophylactic measures against arthropod vectors. This cross-sectional study involved 336 dogs in two regions in Northern Serbia during 2019-2020. A commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test was used to establish the prevalence of seropositive dogs. In the shelters that applied prophylactic measures against arthropod vectors, dogs were seronegative (n=52), while in those without these measures, 2.1% (6/284) were seropositive against Leishmania spp. In conclusion, the presence of dogs seropositive against Leishmania spp. in shelters that did not apply prophylactic measures may indicate that the local population of sandflies is a source of Leishmania spp. parasites.

A review on the eco-epidemiology and clinical management of human granulocytic anaplasmosis and its agent in Europe

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the agent of tick-borne fever, equine, canine and human granulocytic anaplasmosis. The common route of A. phagocytophilum transmission is through a tick bite, the main vector in Europe being Ixodes ricinus. Despite the apparently ubiquitous presence of the pathogen A. phagocytophilum in ticks and various wild and domestic animals from Europe, up to date published clinical cases of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) remain rare compared to the worldwide status. It is unclear if this reflects the epidemiological dynamics of the human infection in Europe or if the disease is underdiagnosed or underreported. Epidemiologic studies in Europe have suggested an increased occupational risk of infection for forestry workers, hunters, veterinarians, and farmers with a tick-bite history and living in endemic areas. Although the overall genetic diversity of A. phagocytophilum in Europe is higher than in the USA, the strains responsible for the human infections are related on both continents. However, the study of the genetic variability and assessment of the difference of pathogenicity and infectivity between strains to various hosts has been insufficiently explored to date. Most of the European HGA cases presented as a mild infection, common clinical signs being pyrexia, headache, myalgia and arthralgia. The diagnosis of HGA in the USA was recommended to be based on clinical signs and the patient’s history and later confirmed using specialized laboratory tests. However, in Europe since the majority of cases are presenting as mild infection, laboratory tests may be performed before the treatment in order to avoid antibiotic overuse. The drug of choice for HGA is doxycycline and because of potential for serious complication the treatment should be instituted on clinical suspicion alone.

Molecular survey of Dirofilaria species in stray dogs, red foxes and golden jackals from Vojvodina, Serbia

Cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis in dogs and other carnivores is caused by Dirofilaria immitis, while Dirofilaria repens usually causes a subcutaneous infection. The importance of red foxes and golden jackals in the epidemiology of dirofilariosis remains unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to conduct a cross-sectional molecular survey of Dirofilaria species in stray dogs, red foxes and golden jackals from the endemic region of Vojvodina, Serbia, in order to determine and update data on their prevalence and provide insight into the epidemiological importance of wild canids. A total of 59 blood samples from stray dogs, 94 from red foxes and 32 from golden jackals were collected and screened by real-time PCR targeting a 115-bp fragment of the mitochondrial 12S gene of filarioids and by conventional PCR assay targeting a 484-524-bp fragment of 5.8S-ITS2-28S locus of filarioids. The cross-sectional molecular survey detected the filarioid mitochondrial 12S gene fragment in stray dogs (27.1 %), red foxes (8.5 %) and golden jackals (6.3 %) in the same endemic region of Vojvodina, Serbia. Only D. immitis was detected in stray dogs, while both D. immitis and D. repens were detected in populations of red foxes and golden jackals. These results outline a possible interaction of D. immitis infection between the dog population and the wild canid populations, while D. repens was found to circulate mostly in golden jackals and red foxes populations.

Flaviviruses at the territory of Serbia – present situation and challenges

The aim of this study is to summarize the data on the occurrence, presence and prevalence of some zoonotic flaviviruses, which have been actively circulating in the territory of the Republic of Serbia during past decade. The genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae,encompasses vector-transmitted viruses with zoonotic potential. The genus is comprised of more than 70 viruses transmitted to humans by mosquitoes and ticks. Some of those are associated only with human diseases (such as yellow fever and dengue fever), whereas others can cause diseases in both humans and animals. Animals are major reservoirs and primary hosts for the latter group. The virus transmission to other animal species or humans occurs via diverse vectors – mostly mosquitoes and ticks. A range of these virus species is widely distributed worldwide, especially in tropical and sub-tropical climatic zones. Some representatives of these species have only recently been identified at the territory of Republic of Serbia. This paper gives an evidence on the presence and distribution of West-Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus and Usutu virus that were conducted within the study in Serbia. The research pointed out the presence of recently detected West-Nile virus and Usutu virus as well as the current circulation of tick-borne encephalitis virus, for which only limited serological evidence on the presence of virus-specific antibodies in humans was available so far. In the aspect of public health, the full understanding of the importance of identification and prevalence of different flaviviruses still require further comprehensive entomologicalacarological, seroepidemiological, clinical and virological research. 

An updated meta-analysis of the distribution and prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in ticks in Europe

Background

The bacteria of the group Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. are the etiological agents of Lyme borreliosis in humans, transmitted by bites of ticks. Improvement of control measures requires a solid framework of the environmental traits driving its prevalence in ticks.

Methods

We updated a previous meta-analysis of the reported prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in questing nymphs of Ixodes ricinus with a literature search from January 2010–June 2017. This resulted in 195 new papers providing the prevalence of Bb for 926 geo-referenced records. Previously obtained data (878 records, years 2000–2010) were appended for modelling. The complete dataset contains data from 82,004 questing nymphs, resulting in 558 records of B. afzelii, 404 of B. burgdorferi s.s. (only 80 after the year 2010), 552 of B. garinii, 78 of B. lusitaniae, 61 of B. spielmanii, and 373 of B. valaisiana. We associated the records with explicit coordinates to environmental conditions and to a categorical definition of European landscapes (LANMAP2) looking for a precise definition of the environmental niche of the most reported species of the pathogen, using models based on different classification methods.

Results

The most commonly reported species are B. afzelii, B. garinii and B. valaisiana largely overlapping across Europe. Prevalence in ticks is associated with portions of the environmental niche. Highest prevalence occurs in areas of 280°–290° (Kelvin) of mean annual temperature experiencing a small amplitude, steady spring slope, together with high mean values and a moderate spring rise of vegetation vigor. Low prevalence occurs in sites with low and a noteworthy annual amplitude of temperature and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (colder areas with abrupt annual changes of vegetation). Models based on support vector machines provided a correct classification rate of the habitat and prevalence of 89.5%. These results confirm the association of prevalence of the three most commonly reported species of B. burgdorferi s.l. in Europe to parts of the environmental niche and provide a statistically tractable framework for analyzing trends under scenarios of climate change.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12942-018-0163-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Correlation between Different Helicobacter Morphotypes and Histological Changes in Pig Gastric Mucosa

Background: Two distinct morphologic types of bacteria which belong to the Helicobacter species, have been described in pigs: once or twice curved Helicobacter pylori-like bacteria (HLO) and the multicoiled, Gastrospirillum-like bacteria (GLO). The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of Helicobacter spp. using modified Giemsa stain and to define the relationship between presence of Helicobacter spp. and histopathological changes of gastric mucosa in pigs.Materials, Methods & Results: A total of 120 pig stomachs (60 from intensive and 60 from extensive breeding) were enrolled in this study and 240 fragments of fundic and pyloric mucosa were taken for histopathological examination. By modified Giemsa staining of gastric mucosa, Helicobacter-like organisms were confirmed in 4/60 (6.67%) of pigs in intensive and 5/60 (8.33%) of pigs in extensive breeding. The incidence of tightly spiral shaped Gastrospirillum-like organisms in pigs of intensive and extensive breeding were 5/60 (8.33%) and 9/60 (15%), respectively. The severity of gastritis was scored to the Sydney System with some modifications. There was no significant difference between HLO-positive and HLO-negative fundic mucosa in pigs of both breeding systems. In contrary, there was significant difference between HLO-positive and HLO-negative pyloric mucosa of pigs in intensive (P < 0.001) and in extensive breeding (P < 0.05). In intensive breeding, there was significant difference between GLO-positive and GLO-negative fundic mucosa (P < 0.05), while there was no significant difference between GLO-positive and GLO-negative pyloric mucosa.Discussion: The prevalence of Helicobacter spp. bacteria were in coherence with literature data. The higher prevalence of both morfological type of bacteria, were considered in pigs in extensive breeding. the hygienic conditions and managment factors in pigs farm are the possible impact for higher bacterial transmission. The association of high prevalence of H. pylori and poor hygienic condition was shown by epidemiological studies conducted on humans. In both, humans and pigs, the presence of H. pylori correlates with an inflammatory response, but there are differences in inflammatory cell population. In H. pylori infected humans, neutrophils composed the bulk of cellular infiltrate, while in pigs, the primary inflammatory cell was the lymphocyte, which is in accordance to results published by others autors. Thus it indicates that different hosts exhibit a different pathohistological response to the Helicobacter spp. infection. In human as well as in veterinary pathology, the fact of the different pathogenicity of various Helicobacter species is well known. In all HLO-positive pyloric mucosa, moderate to severe focal or diffuse infiltration of mononuclear cells and lymphoid follicles with germinal centers, were observed. A similar conclusion was drawn from results of an experimental infection study in pigs. There was signifficance between HLO-positive and HLO-negative pyloric mucosa in both, intensive and extensive breeding. In the contrast, GLO were not associated with the presence of severe gastritis, but only with mild to moderate superficial infiltration of lymphocytes and plasma cells in both, fundic and pyloric mucosa. There was no significant difference between GLO-positive and GLO-negative pyloric mucosa of pigs in both breeding systems. Despite the low gastritis score of fundic mucosa in pigs in intensive breeding, there was a significance difference between in GLO-positive and GLO-negative fundic mucosa. It is believed that the possible reason of such results is the meals with low fiber content and low particles size. These results suggest that the presence of HLO, but not of GLO is associated with the pyloric gastritis in pigs.

PCR DETECTION OF GENITAL INFECTIONS IN BULL SEMEN FROM DIFFERENT REGIONS OF UKRAINE, 2013 - 2016

The most important infectious diseases that aff ect fertility of the bull via semen are reviewed in this article. Th e article describes the results of astudy of cryopreserved semen samples from diff erent regions of Ukraine for the period 2013 to 2016. Th e strategy of regular testing of semen donors under offi cial veterinary supervision has been adopted by governments worldwide as a means of avoiding the spread of pathogens and reducing excessive contamination of semen by ubiquitous bacteria and viruses. During this period, four hundred fi ft y (n=450) bull semen samples from 10 farms across Ukraine have been tested, PCR diagnostics was performed by the standard method developed in NSC «IECVM». According to the PCR analysis of cryopreserved semen from the bull-sires, 19 samples (6%) from Kharkiv region contained genetic material of Mycoplasma spp., 2 samples from Poltava region (3.5%) were positive for BoHV-1, and 2 samples from Cherkasy region (4.5%) contained genetic material of Chlamydia spp. Based on the obtained results we can conclude that it is necessary to permanently perform PCR screening of bulls semen.

Occurrence of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in Ixodes ricinus Ticks with First Identification of Borrelia miyamotoi in Vojvodina, Serbia

Lyme borreliosis is the most common tick-borne infectious disease in Eurasia. Borrelia miyamotoi is the only known relapsing fever Borrelia group spirochete transmitted by Ixodes species. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Lyme Borrelia spp. and relapsing fever Borrelia spp. in Ixodes ricinus ticks collected from dogs and the vegetation from different parts of Vojvodina, Serbia. A total of 71 Ixodes ricinus ticks were collected and screened for the presence of Lyme Borrelia spp. group and relapsing fever Borrelia spp. by real-time PCR for the Borrelia flagellin B (flaB) gene followed by DNA sequencing of PCR products. Species identification was verified by PCR of the outer surface protein A (ospA) gene for Lyme Disease Borrelia spp. and by PCR of the glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (glpQ) gene for relapsing fever Borrelia spp. Lyme Borrelia spp. were found in 15/71 (21.13%) of the ticks evaluated and included B. luisitaniae (11.3%), B. afzelii (7%), B. valaisiana (1.4%), and B. garinii (1.4%). Borrelia miyamotoi, from the relapsing fever Borrelia complex, was found, for the first time in Serbia, in one (1.4%) nymph collected from the environment. Co-infections between Borrelia species in ticks were not detected. These results suggest that the dominance of species within B. burgdorferi s.l. complex in I. ricinus ticks may vary over time and in different geographic regions. Further systematic studies of Borrelia species in vectors and reservoir hosts are needed to understand eco-epidemiology of these zoonotic infections and how to prevent human infection in the best way.

Emerging borreliae - Expanding beyond Lyme borreliosis

Lyme borreliosis (or Lyme disease) has become a virtual household term to the exclusion of other forgotten, emerging or re-emerging borreliae. We review current knowledge regarding these other borreliae, exploring their ecology, epidemiology and pathological potential, for example, for the newly described B. mayonii. These bacteria range from tick-borne, relapsing fever-inducing strains detected in some soft ticks, such as B. mvumii, to those from bat ticks resembling B. turicatae. Some of these emerging pathogens remain unnamed, such as the borrelial strains found in South African penguins and some African cattle ticks. Others, such as B. microti and unnamed Iranian strains, have not been recognised through a lack of discriminatory diagnostic methods. Technical improvements in phylogenetic methods have allowed the differentiation of B. merionesi from other borrelial species that co-circulate in the same region. Furthermore, we discuss members that challenge the existing dogma that Lyme disease-inducing strains are transmitted by hard ticks, whilst the relapsing fever-inducing spirochaetes are transmitted by soft ticks. Controversially, the genus has now been split with Lyme disease-associated members being transferred to Borreliella, whilst the relapsing fever species retain the Borrelia genus name. It took some 60 years for the correlation with clinical presentations now known as Lyme borreliosis to be attributed to their spirochaetal cause. Many of the borreliae discussed here are currently considered exotic curiosities, whilst others, such as B. miyamotoi, are emerging as significant causes of morbidity. To elucidate their role as potential pathogenic agents, we first need to recognise their presence through suitable diagnostic approaches.

IMMUNITY TO RHODOCOCUS EQUI INFECTION IN HORSES

Rhodococcus equi is an opportunistic bacterium that commonly infects foals and immunocompromised patients. Due to the large economic lossesthat it can cause in the fi eld of horse breeding, the microorganism has been studied in details, including its immunological aspect. Within the humoral immunity, the most important immunoglobulins are those of the class G (IgG), produced as a response to the surface antigen associated with virulence (virulence associated protein A, VapA). IgG antibodies provide resistance to pneumonia in foals and have a dose dependent protective effect. In addition to them, the protective role of plasma is achieved through various cytokines. Cellular mechanisms are important for killing bacteria within the macrophage. Virulent strains which carry a plasmid with the gene for VapA stimulate the production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), a key cytokine to kill these bacteria. Th e presence of IFN-γ is crucial for the removal of microorganisms from the lungs and prevention of formation of pulmonary granulomas. For the complete removal of bacteria cooperation of the humoral and cellular immunity is necessary. Particularly signifi cant is opsonization, which increases phagolysosomal fusion. Vaccination and application of hyperimmune plasma play a vital role in the treatment of disease. Only alive and virulent bacterium is capable of producing protective immunity in horses. Th e use of hyperimmune plasma in foals results in a lower percentage of sick animals and less severe clinical progression of the disease. Further research is needed in order to create a safe and effective vaccine.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF A BOAR DIED DURING TRANSPORT AIMED AT REIMBURSEMENT OF INSURED ANIMAL

The long lasting transport of high-value animals during the import represents the signifi cant stress factor for animals, which can lead to severehealth problems and even animal death. Thus, insurance of animals against the event of death is highly recommended. In case of the damage ofthe insured animal (death) it is necessary to implement all statutory and contractual measures for determining the reasons of the damage in orderto eff ectively compensate the loss in the country, in which the animal is insured. In this article, we described the case control study, a death of breeding animal (boar) during the transport (import) from Denmark to Serbia. The animal was insured in exporting country and the forensic expertise was necessary to the purpose of adequate insurance compensation. On the basis of applied methods, which included medical history, records of clinical fi ndings, gross pathological fi ndings and laboratory examination, the cause of death of imported boar was identifi ed (heart failure and suff ocation). The Danish insurance company accepted the results of the examination and compensation has been successfully implemented on behalf of the dead boar.

Analysis of Different Diagnostis Methods of Influenza in Horses

Background: Equine Influenza is a serious, acute respiratory illness with characteristical clinical signs. The disease is caused by family of Orthomyxoviridae, genera Influenza virus A by two subtypes H7N7 and H3N8. Currently, there is believe that H7N7 has been replaced as a predominant subtype with the H3N8. Horse infection with influenza virus can be detected by serological tests on paired sera using HI test. Commercial rapid tests could be used for the detection of influenza virus. Recently it is widely use a PCR method as fast and more specific methods.Materials, Methods & Results: Fifty horses and one pony, age between one and 22 years have been included in experiment. Horses were of different race, sex, and age and vaccination status. Ten out of total 51 (10/51) have been regularly vaccinated against EI. Prior to initiation of these study epidemiological survey has been performed. The clinical examination has been followed by blood sampling for blood cell and serum extraction. The serums were evaluated by HI method. Nasal swabs are taken from both nostrils twice, one was frozen for virus detection by RT-qPCR while another was used for detection of EI virus by Directi-gen™ FLU A rapid test. Analysis of titers of antibody reveled that 7 horses (14%) had specific antibodies (IgG) against subtype H7N7, while 9 horses (18%) had specific antibodies against H3N8. In the same time 4 horses had specific antibodies against both subtypes. Serological data confirmed that from 48 horses (96%) had the titer of antibodies greater than 16 against H7N7, while 40 horses (80%) had the specific antibodies (IgG) against H3N8. We found quite unexpected presence of specific antibodies (IgG) for H7N7 in horses that have not been previously vaccinated with H7N7 subtype. These horses never been utilized for sport activity and there was no legal requirements for their vaccination. Could horses with specific antibodies for H7N7 be transfected from vaccinated horses we could not confirme with scientific evidence either we could not have evidence that wild and domestic birds played a significant role especially knowing that horses are dead end of further we could confirm it. Our findings unequivocally confirmed that EI virus subtype H7N7 antibodies (IgG) were present in horses that have not been vaccinated and this is serological evidence that virus H7N7 is circulating  in these geographical areas.Discussion: Fast and reliable diagnosis and isolation of suspicious horses represent the first line of defense against pandemic influenza. Recognition of clinical signs (fever, depression, sharp cough and nasal discharge) along with epizootical survey provides the basis for the early detection of infection. In some cases, cough and rapid spread of symptoms of cough in a group of horses that were either unvaccinated against influenza virus or have been in contact with influenza virus infected horses can clearly point out to the EI virus. The definitive confirmation of EI virus could be done by virus isolation on tissue culture or embrionated eggs followed by detection of virus nucleic acid by RT-PCR. Our data suggest that a substantial number of horses (90%) that have not been vaccinated or vaccinated irregularly had specific antibodies against both subtypes of EI, what suggest that those horses have been exposed to viruses sometimes during their lifetime. Additionally, despite the fact that 20% of horses had some signs of respiratory disease that resemble EI we were not able to confirm EI nucleic acid by RT-PCR while Directi-gene™ assay confirmed virus presence just in two horses. Failure to detect virus nucleic acid could be due to fact that nasal swab samples have been taken at the end of the clinical symptoms, other authors have simular PCR negative patient which displayed a significant rising titre to influenza type A.

First evidence of Brucella ovis infection in rams in the Pirot Municipality, Serbia

This paper describes a research on Brucella ovis infection in rams in the Pirot Municipality of South Serbia. A positive result with indirect immunoenzyme test (i-ELISA) was confirmed in 67 (29.8%) and suspicious in 31 (13.8%) out of 225 tested rams. Complement fixation test (CFT) was used as a confirmation test on 67 ELISA positive sera and gave positive reaction in 41 (61.2%) ram serum samples. Rams originated from 113 flocks with 4751 sheep, from 28 villages in the Pirot Municipality of southern Serbia. Clinical examination was performed on epididymis and testes of 12 rams from 7 seropositive flocks by inspection and palpation. The examination showed scrotum asymmetry and unilateral increase of the epididymistail in 5 (41.7%) out of 12 seropositive rams. Pathomorphological examination of testes and epididymis confirmed pathological changes in 7 (58.3%) of the 12 examined rams. Onesided epididymitis with pronounced hypertrophy of the epididymitis was also confirmed. Twelve rams were tested for the presence of bacteria, i.e. 21 epididymis, testes and lymph nodes samples. We isolated 20 Brucella strains from 11 (91.7%) of the 12 examined animals. All isolates were identified with bacteriological and molecular techniques as B. ovis. This is the first evidence of ovine epididymitis (B. ovis) in Republic of Serbia.

SEROPREVALENCE OF CANINE MONOCYTIC EHRLICHIOSIS IN HUNTING DOGS IN THE AUTONOMOUS PROVINCE OF VOJVODINA, SERBIA

Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis is a bacterial, vector-transmitted infection caused by Ehrlichia canis. Th e pathogen is mainly transmitted by ticks Rhipicephalus sanguineus. The disease highest distributionis most widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries but it is also reported in Mediterranean countries of Europe (Spain, France, Italy, Turkey). Temperate continental climate and presence of these tick species are responsible for the maintenance and spreading of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis within the dog population in our region as well. Since hunting dogs are more exposed to tick bites then pet dogs, ed thisour study was conducted with the aims of determining the seroprevalence and basic epidemiological characteristics of monocytic ehrlichiosis infection in the population of hunting dogs, and comparing the obtained results with the results of other authors. This research involved 58 hunting dogs from the region of Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. All dogs were clinically examined and their basic epidemiological characteristics were recorded. Then, blood samples were collected in order to determine the presence of specifi c G class antibodies against Ehrlichia canis antigens. An indirect immunofl uorescence test manufactured by VMRD, U.S.A., was used. In this study, the seroprevalence of monocytic ehrlichiosis in a population of examined hunting dogs from the region of Vojvodina was 13.79%. Th is rate is similar to the seroprevalence of monocytic ehrlichiosis in the general population of dogs in Vojvodina.

A METHOD FOR DETECTING AND TYPING OF SALMONELLA BY MULTIPLEX PCR

Today in Ukraine’s market is increasing the volume of trade with livestock products. Also the number of catering services and grocery shops selling ready-made food is growing throughout the country. The veterinary service should have time to check the quality of all of these products. Only traditional bacteriological methods of isolation and identifi cation of pathogens of toxicoinfection, which is not enough in terms of increasing turnover of products, are used today. Th e one of the most dangerous toxicoinfections is salmonellosis. Typing diff erent Salmonella species gives an answer about the source of infection. Th e aim of our work was to develop a system of identifi cation of Salmonella and typing among them five serovars based on the polymerase chain reaction (multiplex PCR). We performed analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the fi ve members of the genus Salmonella, on the basis of which a primer designed for the identifi cation of any member of the genus Salmonella with simultaneous typing - Salmonella enteriса ser. Enteritidis, Salmonella enteriса ser. Typhimurium, Salmonella enterica ser. Тyphi, Salmonella enterica ser. Dublin, Salmonella enterica ser. Gallinarum- Pullorum by multiplex PCR. Th e protocol of multiplex PCR was optimization with simples positive DNA matrix.

ONE HEALTH – CONCEPT FOR TODAY AND TOMORROW

“One Health” has been defi ned as “the collaborative eff ort of multiple disciplines — working locally, nationally, and globally — to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment”. One Health is a new initiative, but with the concept that extends back to ancient times. One Health is an interdisciplinary concept for complex health challenges from a holistic integrated perspective, more then a divided perspective based on different disciplines. Th ere is no isolation, wild animals, domestic animals, pathogens and diseases do not know of the political borders. The aim of the One Health initiative is to form unifi ed solutions applicable for the improvement of health of humans, animals and the environment. A workshop was organized for the representatives of all structures and levels of medical and veterinary services of Serbia. During four tasks, among joint working groups, the most important structure of One Health was proposed, introducing possible concept in Serbia.

FORENSIC INVESTIGATION OF SOW DEATHS IN THE INTENSIVE BREEDING SYSTEM

Sow mortality is a great challenge in intensive pig production worldwide. The aim of this study was to forensically examine the reason of sow death for a two-year period on two farms with intensive pig keeping, based on available data. In sows with a greater number of farrowings (over VII) greater number of deaths was found. Seasonality has an impact on sow mortality, in the summer period a larger number of sow death was found. Poor sow condition that usually occurs in the second half of lactation and after weaning, are the predisposition to the factors that lead to the sow death. On both examined farms in more than 60% of dead sows Clostridium spp. and Escherichia coli were isolated. In order to reduce the mortality of sows more attention should be paid to the older sows with a larger number of farrowings, provide better conditions in summer, cooling, and pay more attention to sows during the period from farrowing to the next insemination, respectively.

Emerging Vector-Borne Diseases - Incidence through Vectors

Vector-borne diseases use to be a major public health concern only in tropical and subtropical areas, but today they are an emerging threat for the continental and developed countries also. Nowadays, in intercontinental countries, there is a struggle with emerging diseases, which have found their way to appear through vectors. Vector-borne zoonotic diseases occur when vectors, animal hosts, climate conditions, pathogens, and susceptible human population exist at the same time, at the same place. Global climate change is predicted to lead to an increase in vector-borne infectious diseases and disease outbreaks. It could affect the range and population of pathogens, host and vectors, transmission season, etc. Reliable surveillance for diseases that are most likely to emerge is required. Canine vector-borne diseases represent a complex group of diseases including anaplasmosis, babesiosis, bartonellosis, borreliosis, dirofilariosis, ehrlichiosis, and leishmaniosis. Some of these diseases cause serious clinical symptoms in dogs and some of them have a zoonotic potential with an effect to public health. It is expected from veterinarians in coordination with medical doctors to play a fundamental role at primarily prevention and then treatment of vector-borne diseases in dogs. The One Health concept has to be integrated into the struggle against emerging diseases. During a 4-year period, from 2009 to 2013, a total number of 551 dog samples were analyzed for vector-borne diseases (borreliosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, dirofilariosis, and leishmaniasis) in routine laboratory work. The analysis was done by serological tests – ELISA for borreliosis, dirofilariosis, and leishmaniasis, modified Knott test for dirofilariosis, and blood smear for babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and anaplasmosis. This number of samples represented 75% of total number of samples that were sent for analysis for different diseases in dogs. Annually, on average more then half of the samples brought to the laboratory to analysis for different infectious diseases are analyzed for vector-borne diseases. In the region of Vojvodina (northern part of Serbia), the following vector-borne infectious diseases have been found in dogs so far borreliosis, babesiosis, dirofilariosis, leishmaniasis, and anaplasmosis.

Prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies in Serbian blood donors

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is rarely reported in industrialized countries, but recent studies have revealed quite variable seroprevalence rates among European populations, including blood donors. In Serbia, very limited data about HEV seroprevalence are available. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of anti-HEV IgG antibodies and HEV RNA in the sera of volunteer blood donors in Serbia.

METHODOLOGY

Serum samples from 200 volunteer blood donors were tested for the presence of anti-HEV IgG by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using ORF-2 HEV genotype 3 recombinant proteins as antigen, and for the presence of HEV RNA by nested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).

RESULTS

In total, 15% of the volunteer blood donors were seropositive. The prevalence increased with age; 21.5%, 14.2%, and 5.4% HEV seroprevalence rates were found in individuals older than 51 years, between 31 and 50 years, and in those younger than 30 years of age, respectively. However, no HEV RNA was detected in any of the individuals analyzed.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of anti-HEV IgG among blood donors as representatives of the general population is quite high in Serbia compared to data from many European countries. One of the reasons for this could be the high prevalence of HEV among Serbian pigs and the traditional consumption of piglet meat in the country. The relatively high HEV seroprevalence found among Serbian blood donors indicates the need for further investigation.

Clinical case series of nine patients with tuberculousmeningitis in the Clinical Centre of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, AP Vojvodina, Serbia 2001-2010

AIM

To determine immediate risk factors of developing tuberculous meningitis, to assess the practical importance of clinical signs and findings in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) when opting for the specific therapy, and to predict the outcome of disease in relation to the beginning of treatment.

METHODS

A retrospective clinical case series of nine patients with tuberculous meningitis who were treated from April 2001 until November 2010 at the Department of Infectious Diseases in Novi Sad, Serbia was presented. Data of patients' medical records and presentation of clinical and laboratory features, neuroradiologicalfindings and outcome were used.

RESULTS

The factors of immediate risk/predisposition for the development of tuberculous meningitis were found in two (22.2%) patients. The duration of symptoms prior to admission was 9 days on average (from 3 to 20 days). The most frequent symptoms on admission were headache and fever in eight (88.9%) patients, whereas two patients (22.2%) were presented with stiff neck and photophobia. Consciousness was preserved in six patients (66.7%), two patients were somnolent and one was in coma. Two(22.2%) patients had concurrent pulmonary tuberculosis. Neuroradiological signs of the disease were present in two patients.

CONCLUSION

The duration of symptoms before admission, clinical examination and CSF analysis can be helpful in identifying patients who are at high risk of developing tuberculous meningitis.

SEROPREVALENCE OF SALMONELLA SPP. ON IMPORT BOARS FROM DENMARK TO SERBIA

The sera from 120 boars from 3 farrow-to-finish swine herds in Serbia were examined for Salmonella spp. antibodies in a cross-sectional study using an ELISA test. A total of 120 blood serum samples from boars imported from Denmark were examined. All boars were seronegative to Salmonella during the import, while after one year Salmonella spp. seroprevalence ranging from 0% to 45% was found in 3 herds using two tests in the time span of one year. Only on one farm during the import in 2011, after a year boars were still seronegative. A year later on the same farm, in boars imported in 2012 the seroprevalence was 30%. Seroprevalence of Salmonella spp. in boars tested on all farms was 24,17%.

FINDINGS OF THE ANAPLASMA PHAGOCYTOPILUM GENOME IN TICKS FROM VOJVODINA AREA, SERBIA

Ticks are vectors for many infectious diseases and represent a constant threat to human population and other animals, especially with respect to zoonoses. Th e cause of granulocyte anaplasmosis Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacterium that infects people as well as various domestic and wild animals. Th e agent is spread worldwide, persisting in the natural environment through an enzootic circle between ticks and their hosting vertebrae. Th e aim of this paper is to demonstrate the distribution of ticks’ infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum in the territory of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Ticks were collected at ten locations in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia, which are a rural habitat for ticks. By applying the nested PCR method, the ticks were examined for the presence of specifi c DNA p44/msp2 Anaplasma phagocytphilum. Of the ten examined pools of ticks collected in the area of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, the presence of genome of the agent Anaplasma phagocytophilum was confi rmed in six pools applying the PCR method. In five pools of ticks of the species Ixodes ricinus, presence of agent Anaplasma phagocytophilum was confi rmed. Th ese ticks were found at the following locations: Poplar Research Institute (2 locations), Fruška gora (2 locations) Poloj-forest Bačka Palanka (1 location). In one pool of ticks of the species Dermacentor reticulatus from the location Poloj-forest Bačka Palanka, we confi rmed the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum genome. This infection can be a problem for public health, so further and more comprehensive acharological and epidemiological research is necessary in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina.

LESS COMMON AETIOLOGICAL AGENT OF BOVINE MASTITIS

Serratia marcescens was considered originally a saprophytic bacteria in the environment, and many decades after the discovery it was actually recognized as a pathogen of plants and a wide range of invertebrates and vertebrates. It has been identified as an important human pathogen that causes a number of hospital-acquired infections. Due to the increase of resistance to a variety of antibiotics, the bacteria is recognized as an important public health issue. S. marcescens causes subclinical, chronic mastitis in dairy cows, which makes it significantly different from other members of Enterobacteriaceae family, such as coliform bacteria. In infected cows clinical signs are mostly mild, but for months, or even years, the bacteria is secreted in milk and infection of other cows in the herd may occur via the milking system. The antibiotic treatment of mastitis caused by S. marcescens is considered less efficiant. Most isolates of S. marcescens from the environment are characterized by a production of red pigment - prodigiosin, with the unknown function in bacterial physiology. This secondary metabolic product of S.marcescens is the subject of research in the field of pharmacy and bioengineering, because of its anfibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal (antimalaric) and immunomodulatory effects, as well as anticancer activities.

Borrelia burgdorferi in ticks and dogs in the province of Vojvodina, Serbia

Lyme disease is a tick borne zoonotic infection, caused by Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. bacteria. For the transmission of the disease, the presence of ticks is a prerequisite. Lyme borreliosis mostly occurs in people and dogs, but it may occur in other animals. Ticks which carry B. burgdorferi s.l. in Serbia are of the Ixodes ricinus specis. In Serbia, Lyme disease was detected for the first time in the late '80-es. In dogs, clinical symptoms may occur even months after a tick bite, and include weakness, lymphadenopathy, fever, lameness, arthritis, etc. In our survey, we have observed tick and dog populations in the province of Vojvodina (northern part of Serbia). I. ricinus ticks were collected and examined for the presence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in several chosen locations. In addition, blood samples were collected from house dogs and pets from the same locations, and analyzed for the presence of antibodies specific for B. burgdorferi s.l. The results showed a mean infection of ticks of 22.12%, and a mean seroprevalence of Lyme disease in dogs of 25.81%. We conclude that in Vojvodina there is an actual risk of Lyme borreliosis for other animals and humans, because of the persistence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in both tick and dog populations.