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Hernández-Díazcouder A, Díaz-Godínez C, Carrero JC. Extracellular vesicles in COVID-19 prognosis, treatment, and vaccination: an update. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:2131-2141. [PMID: 36917275 PMCID: PMC10012322 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12468-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
The lethality of the COVID 19 pandemic became the trigger for one of the most meteoric races on record in the search for strategies of disease control. Those include development of rapid and sensitive diagnostic methods, therapies to treat severe cases, and development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, the latter responsible for the current relative control of the disease. However, the commercially available vaccines are still far from conferring protection against acquiring the infection, so the development of more efficient vaccines that can cut the transmission of the variants of concerns that currently predominate and those that will emerge is a prevailing need. On the other hand, considering that COVID 19 is here to stay, the development of new diagnosis and treatment strategies is also desirable. In this sense, there has recently been a great interest in taking advantage of the benefits offered by extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane structures of nanoscale size that carry information between cells participating in this manner in many physiological homeostatic and pathological processes. The interest has been focused on the fact that EVs are relatively easy to obtain and manipulate, allowing the design of natural nanocarriers that deliver molecules of interest, as well as the information about the pathogens, which can be exploited for the aforementioned purposes. Studies have shown that infection with SARS-CoV-2 induces the release of EVs from different sources, including platelets, and that their increase in blood, as well as some of their markers, could be used as a prognosis of disease severity. Likewise, EVs from different sources are being used as the ideal carriers for delivering active molecules and drugs to treat the disease, as well as vaccine antigens. In this review, we describe the progress that has been made in these three years of pandemic regarding the use of EVs for diagnosis, treatment, and vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 infection. KEY POINTS: • Covid-19 still requires more effective and specific treatments and vaccines. • The use of extracellular vesicles is emerging as an option with multiple advantages. • Association of EVs with COVID 19 and engineered EVs for its control are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Hernández-Díazcouder
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez, Ciudad de México, México
- Departamento de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad Tecnológica de México (UNITEC), Estado de México, Los Reyes, México
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad Tecnológica de México (UNITEC), Estado de México, Los Reyes, México
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Julio César Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), 04510, Ciudad de México, México.
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Díaz-Godínez C, Ríos-Valencia DG, García-Aguirre S, Martínez-Calvillo S, Carrero JC. Immunomodulatory effect of extracellular vesicles from Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites: Regulation of NETs and respiratory burst during confrontation with human neutrophils. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1018314. [PMID: 36389143 PMCID: PMC9650183 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1018314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasites release extracellular vesicles (EVs) which, in some cases, modulate the host's immune response contributing to the establishment of the infection. In this work we have isolated and characterized the EVs released by trophozoites of the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, the causal agent of amoebiasis, when alone or in coculture with human neutrophils, and determined their effect on neutrophil NETs and ROS production. Nanoparticle tracking analysis showed that amoebic EVs are variable in size, ranging from less than 50 nm to nearly 600 nm in diameter (average of 167 nm), whereas neutrophil EVs are more uniform in size, with an average of 136 nm. In cocultures amoeba:neutrophil (1:100) most EVs are 98 nm in size, which is the typical size of exosomes. EVs from amoebae and neutrophils showed almost equal levels of ROS, which were considerably increased in EVs from cocultures. Uptake of amoebic EVs by neutrophils was demonstrated by fluorescence and resulted in a significant reduction in the oxidative burst and NET release triggered by PMA, ionophore A23187, or the amoebae itself used as stimuli. Interestingly, uptake of EVs from cocultures did not affect ROS production, but instead caused a greater delay in the onset of NETs release and in their quantity. A comparative proteomic analysis between the EVs of amoebae and neutrophils separately vs the cocultures showed a similar distribution of protein categories in the GO analysis, but differences in the expression and abundance of proteins such as the N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc) inhibitable surface lectin and calreticulin in amoeba EVs, and various antimicrobial molecules in neutrophil EVs, such as lactoferrin and myeloperoxidase. These results highlight the importance of EVs in the immunomodulatory effects exerted by amoeba on human neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Diana G. Ríos-Valencia
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Samuel García-Aguirre
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Santiago Martínez-Calvillo
- Unidad de Biomedicina, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, EM, Mexico
| | - Julio César Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
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Díaz-Godínez C, Ontiveros-Rodríguez JC, Ríos-Valencia DG, Herbert-Pucheta JE, Zepeda-Vallejo LG, Carrero JC. Anti-amoebic Activity of Leaf Extracts and Aporphine Alkaloids Obtained from Annona purpurea. Planta Med 2020; 86:425-433. [PMID: 32108930 DOI: 10.1055/a-1111-9566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Annona purpurea has been traditionally used by indigenous and socioeconomically disadvantaged people to treat infectious and parasitic diseases, including amoebiasis. The goal of this study was to assess the effect of a crude methanolic extract, an alkaloid extract, and aporphine alkaloids from leaves of A. purpurea on the viability of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite cultures and to identify the mechanism of action. Different concentrations of the extracts and alkaloids purpureine (1: ), 3-hydroxyglaucine (2: ), norpurpureine (3: ) glaziovine (4: ), and oxopurpureine (5: ) were added to the cultures, and dead parasites were counted after 24 h using a tetrazolium dye reduction assay and analyzed by flow cytometry. The crude extract did not affect the viability of amoebae, but the alkaloid extract and the derived alkaloid glaziovine (4: ) had important anti-amoebic activity with an IC50 of 33.5 µM compared to that shown by metronidazole (6.8 µM). The treatments induced significant morphological changes in the trophozoites, and most parasites killed by the alkaloid extract were positive for Annexin V, suggesting that apoptosis was the main mechanism of action. In contrast, glaziovine (4: ) induced less apoptosis with more amoebic lysis. This study supports the idea that aporphine alkaloids from A. purpurea, mainly (+)-(R)-glaziovine (4: ), could contribute to the development of new formulations for the treatment of amoebiasis. In addition, X-ray diffraction structural analysis and complete 1H and 13C NMR assignments of (+)-(R)-glaziovine (4: ) were performed and reported for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Julio C Ontiveros-Rodríguez
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología-Instituto de Investigaciones Químico Biológicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Diana G Ríos-Valencia
- Department of Parasitology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, México
| | - José Enrique Herbert-Pucheta
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología-Laboratorio Nacional de Investigación y Servicio Agroalimentario y Forestal, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Chapingo, Estado de México, México
| | - L Gerardo Zepeda-Vallejo
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Julio César Carrero
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
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Fonseca Z, Uribe-Querol E, Díaz-Godínez C, Carrero JC, Rosales C. Pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica, but not Entamoeba dispar, induce neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1167-1181. [PMID: 30913315 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.ma0818-309rrr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis is an infection of global importance, caused by the eukaryotic parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Pathogenic E. histolytica is associated worldwide with over a million cases of amoebic dysentery, colitis, and amoebic liver abscess. In contrast, the nonpathogenic Entamoeba dispar does not cause these diseases, although it is commonly found in the same areas as pathogenic amoeba. Entamoeba histolytica infection is usually associated with infiltrating neutrophils. These neutrophils appear to play a defensive role against this parasite, by mechanisms not completely understood. Recently, our group reported that neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) are produced in response to E. histolytica trophozoites. But, there is no information on whether nonpathogenic E. dispar can also induce NET formation. In this report, we explored the possibility that E. dispar leads to NET formation. Neutrophils were stimulated by E. histolytica trophozoites or by E. dispar trophozoites, and NET formation was assessed by video microscopy. NET induced by E. histolytica were important for trapping and killing amoebas. In contrast, E. dispar did not induce NET formation in any condition. Also E. dispar did not induce neutrophil degranulation or reactive oxygen species production. In addition, E. histolytica-induced NET formation required alive amoebas and it was inhibited by galactose, N-acetylgalactosamine, and lactose. These data show that only alive pathogenic E. histolytica activates neutrophils to produce NET, and suggest that recognition of the parasite involves a carbohydrate with an axial HO- group at carbon 4 of a hexose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zayda Fonseca
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Eileen Uribe-Querol
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Díaz-Godínez C, Carrero JC. The state of art of neutrophil extracellular traps in protozoan and helminthic infections. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20180916. [PMID: 30498092 PMCID: PMC6328873 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20180916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are DNA fibers associated with histones, enzymes from neutrophil granules and anti-microbial peptides. NETs are released in a process denominated NETosis, which involves sequential steps that culminate with the DNA extrusion. NETosis has been described as a new mechanism of innate immunity related to defense against different pathogens. The initial studies of NETs were carried out with bacteria and fungi, but currently a large variety of microorganisms capable of inducing NETs have been described including protozoan and helminth parasites. Nevertheless, we have little knowledge about how NETosis process is carried out in response to the parasites, and about its implication in the resolution of this kind of disease. In the best case, the NETs entrap and kill parasites in vitro, but in others, immobilize the parasites without affecting their viability. Moreover, insufficient studies on the NETs in animal models of infections that would help to define their role, and the association of NETs with chronic inflammatory pathologies such as those occurring in several parasitic infections have left open the possibility of NETs contributing to pathology instead of protection. In this review, we focus on the reported mechanisms that lead to NET release by protozoan and helminth parasites and the evidence that support the role of NETosis in the resolution or pathogenesis of parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
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Fonseca Z, Díaz-Godínez C, Mora N, Alemán OR, Uribe-Querol E, Carrero JC, Rosales C. Entamoeba histolytica Induce Signaling via Raf/MEK/ERK for Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) Formation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:226. [PMID: 30023352 PMCID: PMC6039748 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis, the disease caused by Entamoeba histolytica is the third leading cause of human deaths among parasite infections. E. histolytica was reported associated with around 100 million cases of amoebic dysentery, colitis and amoebic liver abscess that lead to almost 50,000 fatalities worldwide in 2010. E. histolytica infection is associated with the induction of inflammation characterized by a large number of infiltrating neutrophils. These neutrophils have been implicated in defense against this parasite, by mechanisms not completely described. The neutrophil antimicrobial mechanisms include phagocytosis, degranulation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Recently, our group reported that NETs are also produced in response to E. histolytica trophozoites. But, the mechanism for NETs induction remains unknown. In this report we explored the possibility that E. histolytica leads to NETs formation via a signaling pathway similar to the pathways activated by PMA or the Fc receptor FcγRIIIb. Neutrophils were stimulated by E. histolytica trophozoites and the effect of various pharmacological inhibitors on amoeba-induced NETs formation was assessed. Selective inhibitors of Raf, MEK, and NF-κB prevented E. histolytica-induced NET formation. In contrast, inhibitors of PKC, TAK1, and NADPH-oxidase did not block E. histolytica-induced NETs formation. E. histolytica induced phosphorylation of ERK in a Raf and MEK dependent manner. These data show that E. histolytica activates a signaling pathway to induce NETs formation, that involves Raf/MEK/ERK, but it is independent of PKC, TAK1, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, amoebas activate neutrophils via a different pathway from the pathways activated by PMA or the IgG receptor FcγRIIIb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zayda Fonseca
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Nancy Mora
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Omar R Alemán
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Eileen Uribe-Querol
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Díaz-Godínez C, Fonseca Z, Néquiz M, Laclette JP, Rosales C, Carrero JC. Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites Induce a Rapid Non-classical NETosis Mechanism Independent of NOX2-Derived Reactive Oxygen Species and PAD4 Activity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:184. [PMID: 29922599 PMCID: PMC5996068 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are DNA fibers decorated with histones and antimicrobial proteins from cytoplasmic granules released into the extracellular space in a process denominated NETosis. The molecular pathways involved in NETosis have not been completely understood. Classical NETosis mechanisms involve the neutrophil elastase (NE) translocation to nucleus due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidase (NOX2) or the peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) activation in response to an increase in extracellular calcium influx; both mechanisms result in DNA decondensation. Previously, we reported that trophozoites and lipopeptidophosphoglycan from Entamoeba histolytica trigger NET release in human neutrophils. Here, we demonstrated in a quantitative manner that NETs were rapidly form upon treatment with amoebic trophozoites and involved both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). NETs formation depended on amoeba viability as heat-inactivated or paraformaldehyde-fixed amoebas were not able to induce NETs. Interestingly, ROS were not detected in neutrophils during their interaction with amoebas, which could explain why NOX2 inhibition using apocynin did not affect this NETosis. Surprisingly, whereas calcium chelation reduced NET release induced by amoebas, PAD4 inhibition by GSK484 failed to block DNA extrusion but, as expected, abolished NETosis induced by the calcium ionophore A23187. Additionally, NE translocation to the nucleus and serine-protease activity were necessary for NET release caused by amoeba. These data support the idea that E. histolytica trophozoites trigger NETosis by a rapid non-classical mechanism and that different mechanisms of NETs release exist depending on the stimuli used.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Zayda Fonseca
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Mario Néquiz
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Hospital General de México, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan P Laclette
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Ávila EE, Salaiza N, Pulido J, Rodríguez MC, Díaz-Godínez C, Laclette JP, Becker I, Carrero JC. Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites and Lipopeptidophosphoglycan Trigger Human Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158979. [PMID: 27415627 PMCID: PMC4944907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil defense mechanisms include phagocytosis, degranulation and the formation of extracellular traps (NET). These networks of DNA are triggered by several immune and microbial factors, representing a defense strategy to prevent microbial spread by trapping/killing pathogens. This may be important against Entamoeba histolytica, since its large size hinders its phagocytosis. The aim of this study was to determine whether E. histolytica and their lipopeptidophosphoglycan (EhLPPG) induce the formation of NETs and the outcome of their interaction with the parasite. Our data show that live amoebae and EhLPPG, but not fixed trophozoites, induced NET formation in a time and dose dependent manner, starting at 5 min of co-incubation. Although immunofluorescence studies showed that the NETs contain cathelicidin LL-37 in close proximity to amoebae, the trophozoite growth was only affected when ethylene glycol tetra-acetic acid (EGTA) was present during contact with NETs, suggesting that the activity of enzymes requiring calcium, such as DNases, may be important for amoeba survival. In conclusion, E. histolytica trophozoites and EhLPPG induce in vitro formation of human NETs, which did not affect the parasite growth unless a chelating agent was present. These results suggest that NETs may be an important factor of the innate immune response during infection with E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva E. Ávila
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - Norma Salaiza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Julieta Pulido
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - Mayra C. Rodríguez
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Juan P. Laclette
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Ingeborg Becker
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
- * E-mail: (JCC); (IB)
| | - Julio C. Carrero
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
- * E-mail: (JCC); (IB)
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