1
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Gligorić V, Clerc R, Arkensteijn G, van Kleef GA, Rutjens BT. Stereotypes and social evaluations of scientists are related to different antecedents and outcomes. Public Underst Sci 2024:9636625241232097. [PMID: 38459703 DOI: 10.1177/09636625241232097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Research on scientist perceptions tends to focus on either stereotypes (white, male) or social evaluations (competent but cold), sometimes yielding incongruent conclusions (e.g. scientists are simultaneously seen as moral and immoral). Across two preregistered correlational studies (N = 1091), we address this issue by simultaneously assessing stereotypes and social evaluations and their association with two key outcomes: trust in scientists and science career appeal. We find that stereotypes and social evaluations are distinct types of perceptions-they correlate slightly, stem from different worldviews, and predict partially different outcomes. While western enculturation and religiosity predict stereotypes, right-wing political ideology negatively relates to social evaluations. Stereotypes are associated with lower science career appeal among stereotype-incongruent individuals, while social evaluations predict more trust in scientists and higher science career appeal. This work thus sheds light on the psychological pathways to trust in scientists, as well as on the perceived appeal of becoming a scientist.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roy Clerc
- University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Homan AC, Wanders F, van Vianen AEM, van Kleef GA. Better to bend than to break? Effects of rule behavior on dominance, prestige, and leadership granting. J Exp Psychol Appl 2023:2024-36740-001. [PMID: 38108799 DOI: 10.1037/xap0000502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
How people handle rules can influence their social standing in the eyes of others, including their appeal as leaders. It stands to reason that people prefer to grant leadership to individuals who follow rather than break the rules. However, preferences for rule abiders are less evident than one might expect. To enhance understanding of people's responses to (counter)normative behavior, we (a) introduce the concept of rule bending-behavior that infringes a rule without technically breaking it-and (b) draw on the dominance/prestige framework of social rank to illuminate the underlying processes that drive responses to such behavior. In two experiments (Study 1: N = 149; Study 2: N = 480, preregistered), we show that rule breaking (compared to rule abiding) signals relatively high dominance and low prestige, which undermine leadership granting to rule breakers. We further found that rule benders are seen as relatively high on both prestige and dominance, which renders them more attractive as leaders than rule breakers. Finally, we show that the attractiveness of nonabiders as leaders increases under competition when their apparent dominance becomes an asset. We discuss how rule bending relates to rule abiding and rule breaking and consider implications for understanding and managing rule-bending behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid C Homan
- Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam
| | - Florian Wanders
- Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam
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3
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Rutjens BT, Ackers CA, van Kleef GA. I am (not) sorry: Interpersonal effects of neutralizations after a transgression. J Exp Psychol Appl 2023; 29:831-848. [PMID: 37589714 DOI: 10.1037/xap0000483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
After a transgression, people often use neutralizations to account for their behavior, for instance, by apologizing or offering a justification. Previous research has mostly centered around the intrapersonal effects of neutralizations on actors. Consequently, we know very little of the interpersonal effects of neutralizations on observers' perceptions and judgments. Our overarching hypothesis is that neutralizations that contain an acknowledgment of wrongdoing (i.e., apologies and excuses) lead to more favorable perceptions of the transgressor and the transgression than neutralizations that do not (i.e., justifications). We report three studies (N = 800) to investigate the relationship between the type of neutralization used and observers' perceptions of actors and their behaviors. Our findings show that actor and behavior are evaluated differently depending on whether the neutralization used is an apology, an excuse, a consequentialist justification, or a deontological justification. Overall, justifications led to more negative evaluations (especially when invoking deontological reasoning), while apologies and excuses fostered more positive evaluations. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding the social dynamics of norm violations and the social and legal implications for enforcing norm abidance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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van Kleef GA, Wanders F, van Vianen AEM, Dunham RL, Du X, Homan AC. Rebels with a cause? How norm violations shape dominance, prestige, and influence granting. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0294019. [PMID: 37988343 PMCID: PMC10662731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Norms play an important role in upholding orderly and well-functioning societies. Indeed, violations of norms can undermine social coordination and stability. Much is known about the antecedents of norm violations, but their social consequences are poorly understood. In particular, it remains unclear when and how norm violators gain or lose influence in groups. Some studies found that norm violators elicit negative responses that curtail their influence in groups, whereas other studies documented positive consequences that enhance violators' influence. We propose that the complex relationship between norm violation and influence can be understood by considering that norm violations differentially shape perceptions of dominance and prestige, which tend to have opposite effects on voluntary influence granting, depending on the type of norm that is violated. We first provide correlational (Study 1) and causal (Study 2) evidence that norm violations are associated with dominance, and norm abidance with prestige. We then examine how dominance, prestige, and resultant influence granting are shaped by whether local group norms and/or global community norms are violated. In Study 3, protagonists who violated global (university) norms but followed local (sorority/fraternity) norms were more strongly endorsed as leaders than protagonists who followed global norms but violated local norms, because the former were perceived not only as high on dominance but also on prestige. In Study 4, popular high-school students were remembered as violating global (school) norms while abiding by local (peer) norms. In Study 5, individuals who violated global (organizational) norms while abiding by local (team) norms were assigned more leadership tasks when global and local norms conflicted (making violators "rebels with a cause") than when norms did not conflict, because the former situation inspired greater prestige. We discuss implications for the social dynamics of norms, hierarchy development, and leader emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben A. van Kleef
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Florian Wanders
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Rohan L. Dunham
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Xinkai Du
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Astrid C. Homan
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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5
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van Kleef GA. When and how norm violators gain influence: Dominance, prestige, and the social dynamics of (counter)normative behavior. Social & Personality Psych 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
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Abstract
Science and scientists are among the key drivers of societal progress and technological developments. While research has demonstrated that science is perceived as heterogeneous, work on perceptions of scientists usually considers "scientists" as members of a homogeneous group. In the present research, we went beyond this general categorization by investigating differences in social evaluations of different types of scientists. Across four studies conducted in the UK and the US (total N = 1441), we discovered that members of the most frequently mentioned scientific occupations (35 and 36 respectively in each country) are seen as highly competent, relatively moral, but only moderately sociable. We also found that individuals perceive differences between scientific occupations across social dimensions, which were captured in clusters of scientific occupations. Chemists, biologists, and physicists represented the most mentioned and highly prototypical scientific occupations. Perceived prototypicality was primarily associated with competence ratings, meaning that, in the public's view, to be a scientist means to be competent. Perceptions of morality and sociability varied notably across clusters. Overall, we demonstrate that focusing only on "scientists" leads to overgeneralization, and that distinguishing between different types of scientists provides a much-needed nuanced picture of social evaluations of scientists across occupations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vukašin Gligorić
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gerben A. van Kleef
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bastiaan T. Rutjens
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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7
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Fang X, Sauter DA, Heerdink MW, van Kleef GA. Culture Shapes the Distinctiveness of Posed and Spontaneous Facial Expressions of Anger and Disgust. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/00220221221095208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing consensus that culture influences the perception of facial expressions of emotion. However, relatively few studies have examined whether and how culture shapes the production of emotional facial expressions. Drawing on prior work on cultural differences in communication styles, we tested the prediction that people from the Netherlands (a low-context culture) produce facial expressions that are more distinct across emotions compared to people from China (a high-context culture). Furthermore, we examined whether the degree of distinctiveness varies across posed and spontaneous expressions. Dutch and Chinese participants were instructed to either pose facial expressions of anger and disgust, or to share autobiographical events that elicited spontaneous expressions of anger or disgust. Using a supervised machine learning approach to categorize expressions based on the patterns of activated facial action units, we showed that both posed and spontaneous facial expressions of anger and disgust were more distinct when produced by Dutch compared to Chinese participants. Yet, the distinctiveness of posed and spontaneous expressions differed in their sources. The difference in the distinctiveness of posed expressions appears to be due to a larger array of facial expression prototypes for each emotion in Chinese culture than in Dutch culture. The difference in the distinctiveness of spontaneous expressions, however, appears to reflect the greater similarity of expressions of anger and disgust from the same Chinese individual than from the same Dutch individual. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to cross-cultural emotion communication, including via cultural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Fang
- Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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8
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Cohen S, Brady GL, Massaro S, van Kleef GA. Meh, whatever: The effects of indifference expressions on cooperation in social conflict. J Pers Soc Psychol 2022; 123:1336-1361. [DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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9
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Stamkou E, Homan AC, van Kleef GA, Gelfand MJ. The spatial representation of leadership depends on ecological threat: A replication and extension of Menon et al. (2010). J Pers Soc Psychol 2022; 123:e1-e22. [PMID: 35201815 DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Since humanity's first steps, individuals have used nonverbal cues to communicate and infer leadership, such as walking ahead of others. Menon et al., (2010) showed that the use of spatial ordering as cue to leadership differs across cultures: Singaporeans were more likely than Americans to represent leaders behind rather than in front of groups. Furthermore, they showed that threat priming increases the representation of leaders at the back. We replicate and extend these findings. We draw on cultural tightness theory to explain variability in mental representations of leadership, advance the spatial precedence hypothesis that leaders are generally represented in the front, use a large cross-cultural sample to compare different cultural dimensions, and employ alternative operationalizations of threat. We show that leaders are generally represented in frontal spatial positions across 25 countries and in different types of teams. We also find that cultural tightness and ecological threat (pandemic, warfare, and predation) lead people to represent leaders at the back (Studies 1-5). Mediational models show that ecological threat triggers greater desire for tightness and norm-enforcing leaders, which in turn leads people to represent leaders at the back (Study 4). Likewise, in tightly regulated work-teams, leaders are thought of as being seated at the office's back desk (Study 5). Thus, we converge with Menon et al. that different cultures have different mental representations of leaders and individuals who face threats show greater preference for leaders at the back. Additionally, we demonstrate that cultural tightness is the key cultural predictor of mental representations of leadership. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Lange J, Fischer AH, van Kleef GA. "You're just envious": Inferring benign and malicious envy from facial expressions and contextual information. Emotion 2022; 22:64-80. [PMID: 34990194 DOI: 10.1037/emo0001047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Envy shapes social hierarchies. To protect their rank, envied persons react to the threat posed by enviers. Doing so requires that envied persons initially perceive who envies them. However, a common perspective is that envy lacks a unique expression and that enviers disguise their experience, preventing the social perception of envy. In contrast to this perspective, recent evidence indicates that observers perceive benign and malicious forms of envy accurately when they can integrate information about targets. These findings suggest that observers infer envy based on multiple, contextual cues. We hypothesized that observers infer envy from facial and bodily expressions in comparison situations. Specifically, observers should infer benign envy when a target, who encounters an advantaged person, turns with disappointment toward the advantage. Conversely, observers should infer malicious envy when the target turns with anger toward the advantaged person. Three preregistered studies tested these hypotheses (total N = 693). In Studies 1 and 2, targets turned with an emotional or neutral expression either toward a person silhouette or a valuable object, and participants rated targets' envy. In Study 3, participants performed the same task with more realistic stimuli. Across studies, emotional display and head turning had independent effects on inferences of benign and malicious envy. Furthermore, observers inferred envy more when the target expressed an emotion instead of remaining neutral. We discuss how the results inform research on the social perception of envy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Lange
- Department of Differential Psychology and Psychological Assessment
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11
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van Kleef GA. Animals may be more reliably emotional than humans. Animal Sentience 2022. [DOI: 10.51291/2377-7478.1755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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12
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Nieper AS, Beersma B, Dijkstra MTM, van Kleef GA. When and why does gossip increase prosocial behavior? Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:315-320. [PMID: 34875505 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Understanding when people behave prosocially is integral to solving many challenges in groups and society. Gossip-the exchange of information about absent others-has been proposed to increase prosocial behavior, but findings are mixed. In this review, we illuminate the relationship between gossip and prosocial behavior, reconcile disparate findings, and suggest new directions for research. Our review reveals that gossip increases prosocial behavior to the degree that a) it is accurate rather than inaccurate, b) targets are interdependent with, rather than independent from, gossip receivers, and c) targets anticipate that they might be gossiped about, rather than actually experience negative gossip. We discuss implications of our reviewed findings for understanding when gossip serves to uphold desirable behavior and when it inadvertently engenders undesirable behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika S Nieper
- Department of Organization Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Bianca Beersma
- Department of Organization Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria T M Dijkstra
- Department of Organization Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, Universiteit van Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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13
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Homan AC, van Kleef GA. Managing Team Conscientiousness Diversity: The Role of Leader Emotion-Regulation Knowledge. Small Group Research 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/10464964211045015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Team members may vary in the degree to which they are self-motivating, diligent, and organized, but effects of such conscientiousness diversity are poorly understood. We propose that conscientiousness diversity effects depend on the team leader’s knowledge about managing negative affective responses—that is emotion regulation knowledge. Data of two time-lagged team studies show that for teams with leaders with lower emotion-regulation knowledge, conscientiousness diversity was negatively associated with team satisfaction (Study 1 and 2), team cohesion and information elaboration (Study 2), which in turn influenced team performance (Study 2). These negative relationships reversed in teams with leaders with higher emotion-regulation knowledge.
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van Kleef GA, Lelieveld GJ. Moving the self and others to do good: The emotional underpinnings of prosocial behavior. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:80-88. [PMID: 34592600 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The functioning of social collectives hinges on the willingness of their members to cooperate with one another and to help those who are in need. Here, we consider how such prosocial behavior is shaped by emotions. We offer an integrative review of theoretical arguments and empirical findings concerning how the experience of emotions influences people's own prosocial behavior (intrapersonal effects) and how the expression of emotions influences the prosocial behavior of others (interpersonal effects). We identified research on five broad clusters of emotions associated with opportunity and affiliation (happiness, contentment, hope), appreciation and self-transcendence (gratitude, awe, elevation, compassion), distress and supplication (sadness, disappointment, fear, anxiety), dominance and status assertion (anger, disgust, contempt, envy, pride), and appeasement and social repair (guilt, regret, shame, embarrassment). Our review reveals notable differences between emotion clusters and between intrapersonal and interpersonal effects. Although some emotions promote prosocial behavior in the self and others, most emotions promote prosocial behavior either in the self (via their intrapersonal effects) or in others (via their interpersonal effects), suggesting trade-offs between the functionality of emotional experience and emotional expression. Moreover, interpersonal effects are modulated by the cooperative versus competitive nature of the situation. We discuss the emerging patterns from a social-functional perspective and conclude that understanding the role of emotion in prosociality requires joint attention to intrapersonal and interpersonal effects.
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16
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Wanders F, Homan AC, van Vianen AEM, Rahal RM, van Kleef GA. How norm violators rise and fall in the eyes of others: The role of sanctions. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254574. [PMID: 34324549 PMCID: PMC8324048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Norm violators demonstrate that they can behave as they wish, which makes them
appear powerful. Potentially, this is the beginning of a self-reinforcing loop,
in which greater perceived power invites further norm violations. Here we
investigate the possibility that sanctions can break this loop by reducing the
power that observers attribute to norm violators. Despite an abundance of
research on the effects of sanctions as deterrents for norm-violating behavior,
little is known about how sanctions may change perceptions of individuals who do
(or do not) violate norms. Replicating previous research, we found in two
studies (N1 = 203,
N2 = 132) that norm violators
are perceived as having greater volitional capacity compared to norm abiders.
Qualifying previous research, however, we demonstrate that perceptions of
volition only translate into attributions of greater power in the absence of
sanctions. We discuss implications for social hierarchies and point out avenues
for further research on the social dynamics of power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Wanders
- Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
| | - Astrid C. Homan
- Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
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17
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Abstract
We review the burgeoning literature on the social effects of emotions, documenting the impact of emotional expressions on observers' affect, cognition, and behavior. We find convergent evidence that emotional expressions influence observers' affective reactions, inferential processes, and behaviors across various domains, including close relationships, group decision making, customer service, negotiation, and leadership. Affective reactions and inferential processes mediate the effects of emotional expressions on observers' behaviors, and the relative potency of these mediators depends on the observers' information processing and the perceived appropriateness of the emotional expressions. The social effects of emotions are similar across expressive modalities (face, voice, body, text, symbols). We discuss the findings in relation to emotional contagion, emotional intelligence, emotion regulation, emotions as social information (EASI) theory, and the functionality of emotions in engendering social influence. Finally, we identify gaps in our current understanding of the topic and call for interdisciplinary collaboration and methodological diversification. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 73 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben A van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, 1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Stéphane Côté
- Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E6, Canada;
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18
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Fang X, van Kleef GA, Kawakami K, Sauter DA. Cultural differences in perceiving transitions in emotional facial expressions: Easterners show greater contrast effects than westerners. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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19
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Lange J, Heerdink MW, van Kleef GA. Reading emotions, reading people: Emotion perception and inferences drawn from perceived emotions. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 43:85-90. [PMID: 34303128 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Emotional expressions play an important role in coordinating social interaction. We review research on two critical processes that underlie such coordination: (1) perceiving emotions from emotion expressions and (2) drawing inferences from perceived emotions. Broad evidence indicates that (a) observers can accurately perceive emotions from a person's facial, bodily, vocal, verbal, and symbolic expressions and that such emotion perception is further informed by contextual information. Moreover, (b) observers draw consequential and contextualized inferences from these perceived emotions about the expresser, the situation, and the self. Thus, emotion expressions enable coordinated action by providing information that facilitates adaptive behavioral responses. We recommend that future studies investigate how people integrate information from different expressive modalities and how this affects consequential inferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Lange
- Department of Differential Psychology and Psychological Assessment, University of Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 5, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Marc W Heerdink
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 15900, 1001 NK Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 15900, 1001 NK Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Abstract
Narcissists have a relatively higher proclivity for displaying antisocial rather
than prosocial behaviors, suggesting a comparatively higher tendency for
unfavorably impacting societies. However, maintenance of social order also
depends on appropriate responses to others’ social behavior. Once we focus on
narcissists as observers rather than actors, their impact on social functioning
becomes less clear-cut. Theoretical arguments suggest that narcissists could be
either hypo-responsive or hyper-responsive to others’ social behavior. Across
four studies, we examined narcissists’ responsiveness to variations in others’
antisocial and prosocial behaviors. Results showed that narcissists
differentiated less between others’ antisociality/prosociality, as reflected in
their subsequent moral character evaluations (Studies 1–4) and reward and
punishment (Studies 3 and 4). These results suggest that narcissists are
hypo-responsive to others’ social behaviors. Implications and directions for
future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiafang Chen
- University of Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
- Jiafang Chen, Department of Social
Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129-B, P.O. Box 15900,
1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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21
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van Kleef GA. Comment: Moving (Further) Beyond Private Experience: On the Radicalization of the Social Approach to Emotions and the Emancipation of Verbal Emotional Expressions. Emotion Review 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/1754073921991231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Emotions have traditionally been viewed as intrapersonal phenomena. Over the past decades, theory and research have shifted toward a more social perspective that emphasizes the role of emotional expressions in coordinating social interaction. I provide a brief history of this ongoing paradigm shift, which reveals two critical developments. The first concerns a continuing shift in emphasis on the social-communicative rather than individual-level functions and effects of emotions—the radicalization of the social approach to emotion. The second concerns a growing awareness that emotions can be expressed through multiple modalities, including words—the emancipation of verbal emotional expressions. I discuss theoretical challenges and opportunities presented by these developments and consider their implications for understanding emotions as a source of social influence.
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22
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van Kleef GA, Heerdink MW, Cheshin A, Stamkou E, Wanders F, Koning LF, Fang X, Georgeac OAM. No guts, no glory? How risk-taking shapes dominance, prestige, and leadership endorsement. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 106:1673-1694. [PMID: 33507768 DOI: 10.1037/apl0000868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Risk-taking can fuel innovation and growth, but it can also have devastating consequences for individuals and organizations. Here we examine whether risk-taking affords social-hierarchical benefits to risk-takers. Specifically, we investigate how risk-taking influences perceived dominance, prestige, and the willingness to endorse risk-takers' leadership. Integrating insights from costly signaling theory and the dominance/prestige framework of social rank, we theorized that risk-taking increases leadership endorsement to the degree that it fuels perceptions of prestige, but decreases leadership endorsement to the degree that it fuels perceptions of dominance. However, we also hypothesized that risk-induced perceptions of dominance do translate into leadership endorsement in competitive (rather than cooperative) intergroup settings. We tested these hypotheses in four studies involving different samples, methods, and operationalizations. In Study 1, participants performed an implicit association test (IAT) that revealed that people associate risk with leader positions, and safety with follower positions. Study 2 was a longitudinal field survey conducted during the September 2019 Israeli elections, which showed that voters' perceptions of politicians' risk-taking propensities prior to the elections positively predicted perceived dominance and prestige as well as voting behavior during the elections. Finally, Studies 3 and 4 demonstrated that people are willing to support risk-takers as leaders in the context of competitive (as opposed to cooperative) intergroup situations, because perceived dominance positively predicts leadership endorsement in competitive (but not cooperative) intergroup settings. We discuss implications for understanding the social dynamics of organizational rank and the perpetuation of risky behavior in organizations, politics, and society at large. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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Oostrom JK, Ronay R, van Kleef GA. The signalling effects of nonconforming dress style in personnel selection contexts: do applicants’ qualifications matter? European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/1359432x.2020.1813112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janneke K. Oostrom
- Department of Management and Organisation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Ronay
- Department of Leadership and Management, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Emotions are part and parcel of the human condition, but their nature is debated. Three broad classes of theories about the nature of emotions can be distinguished: affect-program theories, constructionist theories, and appraisal theories. Integrating these broad classes of theories into a unifying theory is challenging. An integrative psychometric model of emotions can inform such a theory because psychometric models are intertwined with theoretical perspectives about constructs. To identify an integrative psychometric model, we delineate properties of emotions stated by emotion theories and investigate whether psychometric models account for these properties. Specifically, an integrative psychometric model of emotions should allow (a) identifying distinct emotions (central in affect-program theories), (b) between- and within-person variations of emotions (central in constructionist theories), and (c) causal relationships between emotion components (central in appraisal theories). Evidence suggests that the popular reflective and formative latent variable models-in which emotions are conceptualized as unobservable causes or consequences of emotion components-cannot account for all properties. Conversely, a psychometric network model-in which emotions are conceptualized as systems of causally interacting emotion components-accounts for all properties. The psychometric network model thus constitutes an integrative psychometric model of emotions, facilitating progress toward a unifying theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Lange
- Psychology Research Institute, University of
Amsterdam
| | - Jonas Dalege
- Psychology Research Institute, University of
Amsterdam
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Homan AC, Gündemir S, Buengeler C, van Kleef GA. Leading diversity: Towards a theory of functional leadership in diverse teams. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 105:1101-1128. [PMID: 31971407 DOI: 10.1037/apl0000482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The importance of leaders as diversity managers is widely acknowledged. However, a dynamic and comprehensive theory on the interplay between team diversity and team leadership is missing. We provide a review of the extant (scattered) research on the interplay between team diversity and team leadership, which reveals critical shortcomings in the current scholarly understanding. This calls for an integrative theoretical account of functional diversity leadership in teams. Here we outline such an integrative theory. We propose that functional diversity leadership requires (a) knowledge of the favorable and unfavorable processes that can be instigated by diversity, (b) mastery of task- and person-focused leadership behaviors necessary to address associated team needs, and (c) competencies to predict and/or diagnose team needs and to apply corresponding leadership behaviors to address those needs. We integrate findings of existing studies on the interplay between leadership and team diversity with insights from separate literatures on team diversity and (team) leadership. The resulting Leading Diversity model (LeaD) posits that effective leadership of diverse teams requires proactive as well as reactive attention to teams' needs in terms of informational versus intergroup processes and adequate management of these processes through task- versus person-focused leadership. LeaD offers new insights into specific competencies and actions that allow leaders to shape the influence of team diversity on team outcomes and, thereby, harvest the potential value in diversity. Organizations can capitalize on this model to promote optimal processes and performance in diverse teams. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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26
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Fang X, Sauter DA, van Kleef GA. Unmasking smiles: the influence of culture and intensity on interpretations of smiling expressions. J Cult Cogn Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s41809-019-00053-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Abstract
Some artists rise to fame, while others sink into oblivion. What determines whether artists make an impact? Considering deviance in its sociohistorical context, we propose that artists whose work deviates from their own previous style (intrapersonal deviance) and other artists' styles (interpersonal deviance) gain greater impact than nondeviant artists, as long as deviance is directed toward a progressive style. A preliminary study showed that in western cultures nonrealistic styles are considered more progressive than realistic styles (Study 1). Five more studies provide evidence for the effects of the two types of artistic deviance on several aspects of impact (i.e., perceived influence of the artist, valuation of the artwork, and visual attention to the artwork). First, individuals considered artists who deviated from their previous style more impactful than artists who consistently followed a single style (Study 2), effects that were stronger when artists transitioned from a retrogressive style to a progressive one (Study 3). Second, artists who deviated from their contemporaries' style were considered more impactful than artists who followed the predominant style, effects that were stronger when artists strayed from a predominant retrogressive style by using progressive means of expression (Studies 4 and 5). When the historical context prevented observers from inferring the progressiveness of the deviant artists' expressive means, artistic deviance enhanced perceived impact regardless of the means by which the artists deviated (Study 6). Supporting our theoretical model, the effects of intrapersonal and interpersonal deviance on impact were mediated by perceived will-power (Studies 3, 5, and 6). (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Astrid C Homan
- Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam
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28
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Kumar R, van Kleef GA, Higgins ET. How emotions influence alliance relationships: The potential functionality of negative emotions. Organizational Psychology Review 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/2041386619878837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This article utilizes a motivational perspective on emotions to reconceptualize the impact of negative emotions on relationship dynamics between alliance partners. Alliance failure is endemic and yet we know little about how alliance partners manage the interface between them. We draw upon the alliance discrepancy model, self-discrepancy theory, appraisal theory, emotions as social information theory, and Horney’s behavioral typology of moving toward, moving against, or moving away to analyze the emotional, motivational, and behavioral dynamics among alliance decision makers. We propose that process discrepancies predominantly produce agitation-related emotions such as anger and anxiety, whereas outcome discrepancies predominantly produce dejection-related emotions such as sadness and disappointment. We analyze the impact of emotions at both the intrapersonal and the interpersonal levels. The intrapersonal level captures the impact of alliance decision makers’ experienced emotions on their own behavior, whereas the interpersonal level captures the impact of alliance decision makers’ expressed emotions on their partners’ behavior. At the intrapersonal level, agitation-related emotions lead alliance decision makers to move against (or away from) their partner, whereas dejection-related emotions lead them to move toward their partner. At the interpersonal level, the expression of dejection-related emotions leads alliance decision makers to move toward their partner, whereas the expression of agitation-related emotions leads alliance partners to either move toward or against their partner depending upon the relative power of the parties and the specific agitation emotion that is expressed. We develop a series of propositions linking discrepancies with emotions and alliance management, which highlight a different way of thinking about emotions in alliances. Rather than treating negative emotions as destructive forces, our model points to the potential functionality of the experience and expression of negative emotions in alliances. We conclude by outlining some boundary conditions of our model and discussing implications for research and practice.
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van Kleef GA, Gelfand MJ, Jetten J. The dynamic nature of social norms: New perspectives on norm development, impact, violation, and enforcement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Stamkou E, van Kleef GA, Homan AC. Feeling entitled to rules: Entitled individuals prevent norm violators from rising up the ranks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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31
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Fang X, van Kleef GA, Sauter DA. Revisiting cultural differences in emotion perception between easterners and westerners: Chinese perceivers are accurate, but see additional non-intended emotions in negative facial expressions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
Crying is a common response to emotional distress that elicits support from the environment. People may regulate another's crying in several ways, such as by providing socio-affective support (e.g. comforting) or cognitive support (e.g. reappraisal), or by trying to emotionally disengage the other by suppression or distraction. We examined whether people adapt their interpersonal emotion regulation strategies to the situational context, by manipulating the regulatory demand of the situation in which someone is crying. Participants watched a video of a crying man and provided support by recording a video message. We hypothesised that when immediate down-regulation was required (i.e. high regulatory demand), participants would provide lower levels of socio-affective and cognitive support, and instead distract the crying person or encourage them to suppress their emotions, compared to when there is no such urgency (i.e. low regulatory demand). As predicted, both self-reported and behavioural responses indicated that high (as compared to low) regulatory demand led to a reduction in socio-affective support provision, and a strong increase in suppression and distraction. Cognitive support provision, however, was unaffected by regulatory demand. When the context required more immediate down-regulation, participants thus employed more regulation strategies aimed at disengaging from the emotional experience. This study provides a first step in showing that people take the context into account when attempting to regulate others' emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne S Pauw
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Disa A Sauter
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Agneta H Fischer
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
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33
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Stamkou E, van Kleef GA, Homan AC, Gelfand MJ, van de Vijver FJR, van Egmond MC, Boer D, Phiri N, Ayub N, Kinias Z, Cantarero K, Efrat Treister D, Figueiredo A, Hashimoto H, Hofmann EB, Lima RP, Lee IC. Cultural Collectivism and Tightness Moderate Responses to Norm Violators: Effects on Power Perception, Moral Emotions, and Leader Support. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2018; 45:947-964. [PMID: 30394858 PMCID: PMC6501454 DOI: 10.1177/0146167218802832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Responses to norm violators are poorly understood. On one hand, norm violators are perceived as powerful, which may help them to get ahead. On the other hand, norm violators evoke moral outrage, which may frustrate their upward social mobility. We addressed this paradox by considering the role of culture. Collectivistic cultures value group harmony and tight cultures value social order. We therefore hypothesized that collectivism and tightness moderate reactions to norm violators. We presented 2,369 participants in 19 countries with a norm violation or a norm adherence scenario. In individualistic cultures, norm violators were considered more powerful than norm abiders and evoked less moral outrage, whereas in collectivistic cultures, norm violators were considered less powerful and evoked more moral outrage. Moreover, respondents in tighter cultures expressed a stronger preference for norm followers as leaders. Cultural values thus influence responses to norm violators, which may have downstream consequences for violators' hierarchical positions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eva B Hofmann
- 13 WU, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria
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34
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Pauw LS, Sauter DA, van Kleef GA, Fischer AH. I hear you (not): sharers' expressions and listeners' inferences of the need for support in response to negative emotions. Cogn Emot 2018; 33:1129-1143. [PMID: 30345872 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2018.1536036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
When in emotional distress, people often turn to others for support. Paradoxically, even when people perceive social support to be beneficial, it often does not result in emotional recovery. This paradox may be explained by the fact that the sharing process disproportionately centres on support that is not helpful in the long run. A distinction has been made between two types of support that are differentially effective: Whereas socio-affective support alleviates momentary emotional distress, cognitive support fosters long-term recovery. But can listeners tell what support the sharer needs? The present study examines the hypothesis that sharers communicate their support goals by sharing in such a way that it allows listeners to infer the sharer's needs. In Experiment 1, we manipulated participants' support goals, and showed that socio-affective support goals led participants to express more emotions, whereas cognitive support goals resulted in greater use of appraisals. In Experiments 2 and 3, we tested whether these differential expressions would affect the support goals that listeners inferred. We found no evidence for such an effect: Listeners consistently perceived the sharer to predominantly want socio-affective support. These findings help explain why many social sharing instances revolve around socio-affective support, leading to subjectively experienced benefits, but not to genuine recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne S Pauw
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Disa A Sauter
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Agneta H Fischer
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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Petkanopoulou K, Rodríguez‐Bailón R, Willis GB, van Kleef GA. Powerless people don't yell but tell: The effects of social power on direct and indirect expression of anger. Eur J Soc Psychol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Petkanopoulou
- University of Granada Granada Spain
- Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences Athens Greece
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Heerdink MW, Koning LF, van Doorn EA, van Kleef GA. Emotions as guardians of group norms: expressions of anger and disgust drive inferences about autonomy and purity violations. Cogn Emot 2018; 33:563-578. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2018.1476324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marc W. Heerdink
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lukas F. Koning
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Evert A. van Doorn
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gerben A. van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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37
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van Dijk E, van Beest I, van Kleef GA, Lelieveld GJ. Communication of anger versus disappointment in bargaining and the moderating role of power. J Behav Dec Making 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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38
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Aaldering H, Ten Velden FS, van Kleef GA, De Dreu CKW. Parochial cooperation in nested intergroup dilemmas is reduced when it harms out-groups. J Pers Soc Psychol 2018; 114:909-923. [PMID: 29389154 DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In intergroup settings, humans often contribute to their in-group at a personal cost. Such parochial cooperation benefits the in-group and creates and fuels intergroup conflict when it simultaneously hurts out-groups. Here, we introduce a new game paradigm in which individuals can display universal cooperation (which benefits both in- and out-group) as well as parochial cooperation that does, versus does not hurt the out-group. Using this set-up, we test hypotheses derived from group selection theory, social identity, and bounded generalized reciprocity theory. Across three experiments we find, first, that individuals choose parochial over universal cooperation. Second, there was no evidence for a motive to maximize differences between in- and out-group, which is central to both group selection and social identity theory. However, fitting bounded generalized reciprocity theory, we find that individuals with a prosocial value orientation display parochial cooperation, provided that this does not harm the out-group; individualists, in contrast, display parochialism whether or not nut it hurts the out-group. Our findings were insensitive to cognitive taxation (Experiments 2-3), and emerged even when universal cooperation served social welfare more than parochialism (Experiment 3). (PsycINFO Database Record
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Abstract
Dynamic changes in emotional expressions are a valuable source of information in social interactions. As the expressive behaviour of a person changes, the inferences drawn from the behaviour may also change. Here, we test the possibility that dynamic changes in emotional expressions affect person perception in terms of stable trait attributions. Across three experiments, we examined perceivers' inferences about others' personality traits from changing emotional expressions. Expressions changed from one emotion ("start emotion") to another emotion ("end emotion"), allowing us to disentangle potential primacy, recency, and averaging effects. Drawing on three influential models of person perception, we examined perceptions of dominance and affiliation (Experiment 1a), competence and warmth (Experiment 1b), and dominance and trustworthiness (Experiment 2). A strong recency effect was consistently found across all trait judgments, that is, the end emotion of dynamic expressions had a strong impact on trait ratings. Evidence for a primacy effect was also observed (i.e. the information of start emotions was integrated), but less pronounced, and only for trait ratings relating to affiliation, warmth, and trustworthiness. Taken together, these findings suggest that, when making trait judgements about others, observers weigh the most recently displayed emotion in dynamic expressions more heavily than the preceding emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Fang
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Disa A Sauter
- a Department of Social Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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40
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Abstract
Conflict is an emotional enterprise. We provide an integrative synthesis of theory and research on emotional dynamics in conflict and negotiation at three levels of analysis: the individual, the dyad, and the group. At the individual level, experienced moods and emotions shape negotiators' cognition and behavior. At the dyadic level, emotional expressions influence counterparts' cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses. At the group level, patterns of emotional experience and/or expression can instigate cooperation, coordination, and conformity, or competition, conflict, and deviance. Intrapersonal (individual-level) effects of diffuse moods can be explained by affect priming and affect-as-information models, whereas effects of discrete emotions are better explained by the appraisal-tendency framework. Interpersonal (dyadic- and group-level) effects of emotions are mediated by affective (e.g., emotional contagion) and inferential (e.g., reverse appraisal) responses, whose relative predictive power can be understood through the lens of emotions as social information (EASI) theory. We offer a critical assessment of the current literature, discuss practical implications for negotiation and conflict management, and sketch an agenda for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben A. van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1018 XA, The Netherlands
| | - Stéphane Côté
- Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E6, Canada
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Cheshin A, Amit A, van Kleef GA. The interpersonal effects of emotion intensity in customer service: Perceived appropriateness and authenticity of attendants' emotional displays shape customer trust and satisfaction. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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42
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van Kleef GA. Emotional reactions in non-human animals and social-functional theories of emotion. Animal Sentience 2018. [DOI: 10.51291/2377-7478.1342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Pauw LS, Sauter DA, van Kleef GA, Fischer AH. Sense or sensibility? Social sharers' evaluations of socio-affective vs. cognitive support in response to negative emotions. Cogn Emot 2017; 32:1247-1264. [PMID: 29119854 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2017.1400949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
When in emotional distress, people often turn to others for social support. A general distinction has been made between two types of support that are differentially effective: Whereas socio-affective support temporarily alleviates emotional distress, cognitive support may contribute to better long-term recovery. In the current studies, we examine what type of support individuals seek. We first confirmed in a pilot study that these two types of support can be reliably distinguished. Then, in Study 1, we experimentally tested participants' support evaluations in response to different emotional situations using a vignette methodology. Findings showed that individuals perceived any type of reaction that included socio-affective support as preferable. The evaluation of cognitive support, however, was dependent on the specific emotion: Unlike worry and regret, anger and sadness were characterised by a strong dislike for purely cognitive support. Using different materials, Study 2 replicated these findings. Taken together, the findings suggest that individuals evaluate different types of support in a way that is unlikely to benefit emotional recovery in the long run.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne S Pauw
- a Department of Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Disa A Sauter
- a Department of Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Gerben A van Kleef
- a Department of Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
| | - Agneta H Fischer
- a Department of Psychology , University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , the Netherlands
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44
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Kim PH, Mislin A, Tuncel E, Fehr R, Cheshin A, van Kleef GA. Power as an emotional liability: Implications for perceived authenticity and trust after a transgression. J Exp Psychol Gen 2017; 146:1379-1401. [PMID: 28967776 DOI: 10.1037/xge0000292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
People may express a variety of emotions after committing a transgression. Through 6 empirical studies and a meta-analysis, we investigate how the perceived authenticity of such emotional displays and resulting levels of trust are shaped by the transgressor's power. Past findings suggest that individuals with power tend to be more authentic because they have more freedom to act on the basis of their own personal inclinations. Yet, our findings reveal that (a) a transgressor's display of emotion is perceived to be less authentic when that party's power is high rather than low; (b) this perception of emotional authenticity, in turn, directly influences (and mediates) the level of trust in that party; and (c) perceivers ultimately exert less effort when asked to make a case for leniency toward high rather than low-power transgressors. This tendency to discount the emotional authenticity of the powerful was found to arise from power increasing the transgressor's perceived level of emotional control and strategic motivation, rather than a host of alternative mechanisms. These results were also found across different types of emotions (sadness, anger, fear, happiness, and neutral), expressive modalities, operationalizations of the transgression, and participant populations. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that besides the wealth of benefits power can afford, it also comes with a notable downside. The findings, furthermore, extend past research on perceived emotional authenticity, which has focused on how and when specific emotions are expressed, by revealing how this perception can depend on considerations that have nothing to do with the expression itself. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter H Kim
- Department of Management and Organization, Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California
| | - Alexandra Mislin
- Department of Management, Kogod School of Business, American University
| | - Ece Tuncel
- Department of Management, George H. Walker School of Business & Technology, Webster University
| | - Ryan Fehr
- School of Business, University of Washington
| | - Arik Cheshin
- Department of Human Services, University of Haifa
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45
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Dijk C, Fischer AH, Morina N, van Eeuwijk C, van Kleef GA. Effects of Social Anxiety on Emotional Mimicry and Contagion: Feeling Negative, but Smiling Politely. J Nonverbal Behav 2017; 42:81-99. [PMID: 29497222 PMCID: PMC5816123 DOI: 10.1007/s10919-017-0266-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Socially anxiety may be related to a different pattern of facial mimicry and contagion of others' emotions. We report two studies in which participants with different levels of social anxiety reacted to others' emotional displays, either shown on a computer screen (Study 1) or in an actual social interaction (Study 2). Study 1 examined facial mimicry and emotional contagion in response to displays of happiness, anger, fear, and contempt. Participants mimicked negative and positive emotions to some extent, but we found no relation between mimicry and the social anxiety level of the participants. Furthermore, socially anxious individuals were more prone to experience negative emotions and felt more irritated in response to negative emotion displays. In Study 2, we found that social anxiety was related to enhanced mimicry of smiling, but this was only the case for polite smiles and not for enjoyment smiles. These results suggest that socially anxious individuals tend to catch negative emotions from others, but suppress their expression by mimicking positive displays. This may be explained by the tendency of socially anxious individuals to avoid conflict or rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corine Dijk
- 1Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15933, 1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Agneta H Fischer
- 2Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15933, 1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nexhmedin Morina
- 3Department of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Gerben A van Kleef
- 2Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15933, 1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
First impressions are heavily influenced by emotional expressions such as smiles. In face-to-face contact, smiling individuals are perceived as warmer and as more competent than nonsmiling individuals. In computer-mediated communication, which is primarily text-based, the “smiley” (☺) constitutes the digital representation of a smile. But is a smiley a suitable replacement for a smile? We conducted three experiments to examine the impact of smiley use on virtual first impressions in work-related contexts. Our findings provide first-time evidence that, contrary to actual smiles, smileys do not increase perceptions of warmth and actually decrease perceptions of competence. Perceptions of low competence in turn undermined information sharing. The adverse effects of smiley use are moderated by the formality of the social context and mediated by perceptions of message appropriateness. These results indicate that a smiley is not a smile. The findings have implications for theorizing on the social functionality of virtual emotional expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella Glikson
- Department of Management, Guilford Glazer Faculty of Business and Management, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Arik Cheshin
- Department of Human Services, Faculty of Social Welfare and Health Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- These authors contributed equally to this work
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Aaldering H, A. van Kleef G, K.W. De Dreu C. Oorsprong en gevolgen van parochiale en universele coöperatie in intergroepsconflicten. Gedrag & Organisatie 2016. [DOI: 10.5117/2016.029.003.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In dit artikel bespreken we recent onderzoek waaruit blijkt wanneer mensen geneigd zijn om parochiale of universele coöperatie te tonen. Hierbij kijken we met name naar iemands persoonlijke sociale waarde oriëntatie. Daarnaast wordt onderzoek naar vertegenwoordigend onderhandelen uitgebreid besproken, waarin wordt gekeken wat voor invloed een achterban heeft op de strategie die de vertegenwoordiger gebruikt: competitief naar de andere groep toe om de eigen groep verder te helpen (parochiaal), of coöperatief naar de andere groep met de insteek een gezamenlijke goede oplossing te bereiken. Verschillende factoren, zoals de samenstelling van de achterban, de manier waarop ze hun voorkeuren communiceren en het type onderhandeling, beïnvloeden de gekozen strategie van de vertegenwoordiger. De bevindingen bieden inzichten in hoe zowel parochiale als universele coöperatie in intergroepsconflicten, en met name in vertegenwoordigende onderhandelingen, gestimuleerd of afgeremd kunnen worden.
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Dijkstra KA, van der Pligt J, van Kleef GA. Fit between decision mode and processing style predicts subjective value of chosen alternatives. Eur J Soc Psychol 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Koen A. Dijkstra
- University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Leeds University Business School; Leeds UK
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49
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben A van Kleef
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Arik Cheshin
- Department of Human Services, University of Haifa Haifa, Israel
| | - Agneta H Fischer
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Iris K Schneider
- Department of Psychology, VU University Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Stamkou E, van Kleef GA, Fischer AH, Kret ME. Are the Powerful Really Blind to the Feelings of Others? How Hierarchical Concerns Shape Attention to Emotions. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2016; 42:755-68. [PMID: 27036499 DOI: 10.1177/0146167216636632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Paying attention to others' emotions is essential to successful social interactions. Integrating social-functional approaches to emotion with theorizing on the reciprocal nature of power, we propose that attention to others' emotions depends on concerns over one's power position and the social signal conveyed by the emotion. Others' anger signals attack-information relevant to high-power individuals who are concerned about the legitimacy or suitability of their position. On the contrary, others' fear signals vulnerability-information relevant to low-power individuals who are concerned about their unfair treatment within an illegitimate hierarchy. Accordingly, when power roles were illegitimately assigned or mismatched with one's trait power, leaders were faster at detecting the appearance of anger (Studies 1 and 2), slower at judging the disappearance of anger (Study 2), and more accurate in recognizing subordinates' anger, whereas subordinates were more accurate in recognizing leaders' fear (Study 3). Implications for theorizing about emotion and social hierarchy are discussed.
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