Integrating Nanotechnological Advancements of Disease-Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs into Rheumatoid Arthritis Management

Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is a class of anti-rheumatic medicines that are frequently prescribed to patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methotrexate, sulfasalazine, hydroxychloroquine, and azathioprine are examples of non-biologic DMARDs that are being used for alleviating pain and preventing disease progression. Biologic DMARDs (bDMARDs) like infliximab, rituximab, etanercept, adalimumab, tocilizumab, certolizumab pegol, and abatacept have greater effectiveness with fewer adverse effects in comparison to non-biologic DMARDs. This review article delineates the classification of DMARDs and their characteristic attributes. The poor aqueous solubility or permeability causes the limited oral bioavailability of synthetic DMARDs, while the high molecular weights along with the bulky structures of bDMARDs have posed few obstacles in their drug delivery and need to be addressed through the development of nanoformulations like cubosomes, nanospheres, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanomicelles, liposome, niosomes, and nanostructured lipid carrier. The main focus of this review article is to highlight the potential role of nanotechnology in the drug delivery of DMARDs for increasing solubility, dissolution, and bioavailability for the improved management of RA. This article also focusses on the different aspects of nanoparticles like their applications in biologics, biocompatibility, body clearance, scalability, drug loading, and stability issues.

Dual Responsive Magnetic Drug Delivery Nanomicelles with Tumor Targeting for Enhanced Cancer Chemo/Magnetothermal Synergistic Therapy

Introduction

Stimulus-responsive nanocarrier systems are promising in cancer treatment. They improve drug stability and facilitate controlled drug release. However, single-responsive nanocarriers still face insufficient tumor targeting and low efficacy.

Methods

In this study, we synthesized folate-modified DSPE-PEOz nanomicelles with PEG chains and loaded them with magnetic iron particles and doxorubicin (DOX). Folic acid (FA) was employed as a ligand to target cancer cells actively. The nanomicelles are biocompatible and acid-sensitive drug carriers. Magnetic field-responsive nanoparticles enable moderately controlled magnetothermal therapy of tumors regardless of tumor location. The pH/magnetic field dual-responsive nanomicelles shed their PEG layer in response to tumor tissue acidity and react to magnetic fields through magnetothermal effects.

Results

In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that the nanomicelles could efficiently target cancer cells, release drugs in response to pH changes, and enhance drug uptake through magnetothermal effects.

Discussion

The dual-responsive magnetic nanomicelles are expected to enhance the anti-cancer efficacy of chemo/magnetothermal synergistic therapy.

The Effects of Glycerophospholipid Nanomicelles on the Cryotolerance of Frozen-Thawed Rooster Sperm

Semen banking is an efficient method of artificial insemination for commercial breeders. However, the cryopreservation process induces severe damages to plasma membranes, which leads to reduced fertility potential of thawed sperm. The replacement of membrane lipids with oxidized membrane lipids repairs the cell membrane and improves its stability. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of glycerophospholipid (GPL) nanomicelles on the cryosurvival of thawed rooster semen. Semen samples were collected from six 29-week Ross broiler breeder roosters, then mixed and divided into five equal parts. The samples were diluted with the Beltsville extender containing different concentrations of GPL according to the following groups: 0 (GPL-0), 0.1% (GPL-0.1), 0.5% (GPL-0.5), 1% (GPL-1), and 1.5% (GPL-1.5), then diluted semen was gradually cooled to 4°C during 3 hours and stored in liquid nitrogen. The optimum concentration of GPL was determined based on the quality parameters of thawed sperm. Our results showed sperm exposed to GPL-1 had significantly increased motion parameters and mitochondrial activity. The percentages of viability and membrane integrity were significantly higher in the GPL-1, and GPL-1.5 groups compared with the other groups (p < 0.05). Moreover, the lowest rate of apoptosis and lipid peroxidation were observed in the GPL-1 and GPL-1.5 groups in comparison with the frozen control group. Our findings indicated that membrane lipid replacement with GPL nanomicelles (1% and 1.5%) could substitute for damaged lipids in membranes and protect sperm cells against cryoinjury.

Nanomicelles for GLUT1-targeting hepatocellular carcinoma therapy based on NADPH depletion

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant tumor leading cancer-associated high mortality worldwide. Unfortunately, the most commonly used drug therapeutics not only lack of target ability and efficiency, but also exhibit severe systemic toxicity to normal tissues. Thus, effective and targeted nanodrug of HCC therapy is emerging as a more important issue. Here, we design and develop the novel nanomicelles, namely Mannose-polyethylene glycol 600-Nitroimidazole (Man-NIT). This micelle compound with high purity comprise two parts, which can self-assemble into nanoscale micelle. The outer shell is selected mannose as hydrophilic moiety, while the inner core is nitroimidazole as hydrophobic moiety. In the cell experiment, Man-NIT was more cellular uptake by HCCLM3 cells due to the mannose modification. Mannose as a kind of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) substrate, can specifically recognize and bind to over-expressed GLUT1 on carcinoma cytomembrane. The nitroimidazole moiety of Man-NIT was reduced by the over-expressed nitroreductase with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as the cofactor, resulting in transient deletion of NADPH and glutathione (GSH). The increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HCCLM3 cells disturbed the balance of redox, and finally caused the death of tumor cells. Additional in vivo experiment was conducted using twenty-four male BALB/c nude mice to build the tumor model. The results showed that nanomicelles were accumulated in the liver of mice. The tumor size and pathological features were obviously improved after nanomicelles treatment. It indicates that namomicelles have a tumor inhibition effect, especially Man-NIT, which may be a potential nanodrug of chemotherapeutics for HCC therapy.

Curcumin-Loaded RH60/F127 Mixed Micelles: Characterization, Biopharmaceutical Characters and Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of Airway Inflammation

Curcumin's ability to impact chronic inflammatory conditions, such as metabolic syndrome and arthritis, has been widely researched; however, its poor bioavailability limits its clinical application. The present study is focused on the development of curcumin-loaded polymeric nanomicelles as a drug delivery system with anti-inflammatory effects. Curcumin was loaded in PEG-60 hydrogenated castor oil and puronic F127 mixed nanomicelles (Cur-RH60/F127-MMs). Cur-RH60/F127-MMs was prepared using the thin film dispersion method. The morphology and releasing characteristics of nanomicelles were evaluated. The uptake and permeability of Cur-RH60/F127-MMs were investigated using RAW264.7 and Caco-2 cells, and their bioavailability and in vivo/vitro anti-inflammatory activity were also evaluated. The results showed that Cur-RH60/F127-MMs have regular sphericity, possess an average diameter smaller than 20 nm, and high encapsulation efficiency for curcumin (89.43%). Cur-RH60/F127-MMs significantly increased the cumulative release of curcumin in vitro and uptake by cells (p < 0.01). The oral bioavailability of Cur-RH60/F127-MMs was much higher than that of curcumin-active pharmaceutical ingredients (Cur-API) (about 9.24-fold). The treatment of cell lines with Cur-RH60/F127-MMs exerted a significantly stronger anti-inflammatory effect compared to Cur-API. In addition, Cur-RH60/F127-MMs significantly reduced OVA-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in an in vivo experimental asthma model. In conclusion, this study reveals the possibility of formulating a new drug delivery system for curcumin, in particular nanosized micellar aqueous dispersion, which could be considered a perspective platform for the application of curcumin in inflammatory diseases of the airways.

Norcantharidin-Encapsulated C60-Modified Nanomicelles: A Potential Approach to Mitigate Cytotoxicity in Renal Cells and Simultaneously Enhance Anti-Tumor Activity in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the preparation process of DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles and assess the impact of fullerenol (C60)-modified micelles on the nephrotoxicity and antitumor activity of NCTD.

METHOD

The micelles containing NCTD were prepared using the ultrasonic method and subsequently optimized and characterized. The cytotoxicity of micelles loaded with NCTD was assessed using the CCK-8 method on human hepatoma cell lines HepG2 and BEL-7402, as well as normal cell lines HK-2 and L02. Acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining and flow cytometry were employed to assess the impact of NCTD-loaded micelles on the apoptosis of the HK-2 cells and the HepG2 cells. Additionally, JC-1 fluorescence was utilized to quantify the alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following micelle treatment was determined through 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFDA) staining.

RESULTS

The particle size distribution of the DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles was determined to be 91.57 nm (PDI = 0.231). The zeta potential of the micelles was found to be -13.8 mV. The encapsulation efficiency was measured to be 91.9%. The in vitro release behavior of the micelles followed the Higuchi equation. Cellular experiments demonstrated a notable decrease in the toxicity of the C60-modified micelles against the HK-2 cells, accompanied by an augmented inhibitory effect on cancer cells. Compared to the free NCTD group, the DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles exhibited a decreased apoptosis rate (12%) for the HK-2 cell line, lower than the apoptosis rate observed in the NCTD group (36%) at an NCTD concentration of 75 μM. The rate of apoptosis in the HepG2 cells exhibited a significant increase (49%), surpassing the apoptosis rate observed in the NCTD group (24%) at a concentration of 150 μM NCTD. The HK-2 cells exhibited a reduction in intracellular ROS and an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM) upon exposure to C60-modified micelles compared to the NCTD group.

CONCLUSIONS

The DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles, as prepared in this study, demonstrated the ability to decrease cytotoxicity and ROS levels in normal renal cells (HK-2) in vitro. Additionally, these micelles showed an enhanced antitumor activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2, BEL-7402).

Self-Assembled Amphiphilic Chitosan Nanomicelles: Synthesis, Characterization and Antibacterial Activity

Although amphiphilic chitosan has been widely studied as a drug carrier for drug delivery, fewer studies have been conducted on the antimicrobial activity of amphiphilic chitosan. In this study, we successfully synthesized deoxycholic acid-modified chitosan (CS-DA) by grafting deoxycholic acid (DA) onto chitosan C2-NH2, followed by grafting succinic anhydride, to prepare a novel amphiphilic chitosan (CS-DA-SA). The substitution degree was 23.93% for deoxycholic acid and 29.25% for succinic anhydride. Both CS-DA and CS-DA-SA showed good blood compatibility. Notably, the synthesized CS-DA-SA can self-assemble to form nanomicelles at low concentrations in an aqueous environment. The results of CS, CS-DA, and CS-DA-SA against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus showed that CS-DA and CS-DA-SA exhibited stronger antimicrobial effects than CS. CS-DA-SA may exert its antimicrobial effect by disrupting cell membranes or forming a membrane on the cell surface. Overall, the novel CS-DA-SA biomaterials have a promising future in antibacterial therapy.

Curcumin-Encapsulated Nanomicelles Promote Tissue Regeneration in Zebrafish Eleutheroembryo

Regenerative medicine is an emerging field of research aiming to understand the wound healing mechanisms and to develop new therapeutic strategies. Nanocarriers are used to improve drug bioavailability, solubility, and therapeutic abilities. In this study, we used for the first time curcumin loaded oligo kappa-carrageenan-graft-polycaprolactone (oligoKC-g-PCL) nanomicelles to investigate their regenerative potential using a model of tail amputation in zebrafish eleutheroembryo. First, we showed that curcumin encapsulated oligoKC-g-PCL spherical micelles had a mean size of 92 ± 32 nm and that micelles were successfully loaded with curcumin. These micelles showed a slow and controlled drug release over 72 h. The toxicity of curcumin nanomicelles was then tested on zebrafish eleutheroembryo based on the survival rate after 24 h. At nontoxic concentration, curcumin nanomicelles improved tail regeneration within 3 days postamputation, compared with empty micelles or curcumin alone. Furthermore, we demonstrated that curcumin nanomicelles increased the recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages 6 h postlesion. Finally, our study highlights the efficiency of oligoKC-g-PCL nanomicelles for encapsulation of hydrophobic molecules such as curcumin. Indeed, our study demonstrates that curcumin nanomicelles can modulate inflammatory reactions in vivo and promote regenerative processes. However, further investigations will be required to better understand the mechanisms sustaining regeneration and to develop new therapeutics.

Transdermal Delivery of Glimepiride: A Novel Approach Using Nanomicelle-Embedded Microneedles

Glimepiride (GM) is a hydrophobic drug that dissolves slowly and yields inconsistent clinical responses after oral administration. Transdermal drug delivery (TDD) is an appropriate alternative to oral administration. Microneedles (MNs) offer a promising delivery system that penetrates the skin, while polymeric micelles can enhance the solubility; hence, the combination of both results in high drug bioavailability. This study aims to improve glimepiride's solubility, dissolution rate, and bioavailability by incorporating nanomicelles into MNs for TDD. The nanomicelles formulated with 10% Soluplus® (SP) and 40% GM had a mean particle size of 82.6 ± 0.54, PDI of 0.1 ± 0.01, -16.2 ± 0.18 zeta potential, and achieved a 250-fold increase in solubility. The fabricated pyramid shaped GM-dissolving MNs were thermally stable and had no formulation incompatibility, as confirmed by thermal and FTIR analysis. The in vitro dissolution profile revealed that the GM release from nanomicelles and nanomicelle-loaded DMN was concentration-independent following non-Fickian transport mechanism. Improved pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained with dose of 240 µg as compared to 1 mg of GM oral tablet, in healthy human volunteers. The observed Cmax, Tmax and MRT were 1.56 μg/mL ± 0.06, 4 h, and 40.04 h ± 3.37, respectively. The safety profile assessment indicated that microneedles are safe with no adverse effects on skin or health. This study provides an alternative delivery system for the administration of glimepiride, resulting in improved bioavailability, enhanced patient compliance, and reduced dosing frequency.

Synthesis and Characterization of Folic Acid-Functionalized DPLA-co-PEG Nanomicelles for the Targeted Delivery of Letrozole

An effective treatment for hormone-dependent breast cancer is chemotherapy using cytotoxic agents such as letrozole (LTZ). However, most anticancer drugs, including LTZ, are classified as class IV biopharmaceuticals, which are associated with low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and significant toxicity. As a result, developing a targeted delivery system for LTZ is critical for overcoming these challenges and limitations. Here, biodegradable LTZ-loaded nanocarriers were synthesized by solvent emulsification evaporation using nanomicelles prepared with dodecanol-polylactic acid-co-polyethylene glycol (DPLA-co-PEG). Furthermore, cancer cell-targeting folic acid (FA) was conjugated into the nanomicelles to achieve a more effective and safer cancer treatment. During our investigation, DPLA-co-PEG and DPLA-co-PEG-FA displayed a uniform and spherical morphology. The average diameters of DPLA-co-PEG and DPLA-co-PEG-FA nanomicelles were 86.5 and 241.3 nm, respectively. Our preliminary data suggest that both nanoformulations were cytocompatible, with ≥90% cell viability across all concentrations tested. In addition, the amphiphilic nature of the nanomicelles led to high drug loading and dispersion in water, resulting in the extended release of LTZ for up to 50 h. According to the Higuchi model, nanomicelles functionalized with FA have a greater potential for the controlled delivery of LTZ into target cells. This model was confirmed experimentally, as LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG-FA was significantly and specifically more cytotoxic (up to 90% cell death) toward MCF-7 cells, a hormone-dependent human breast cancer cell line, when compared to free LTZ and LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG. Furthermore, a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 87 ± 1 nM was achieved when MCF-7 cells were exposed to LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG-FA, whereas higher doses of 125 ± 2 and 100 ± 2 nM were required for free LTZ and LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG, respectively. Collectively, DPLA-co-PEG-FA represents a promising nanosized drug delivery system to target controllably the delivery of drugs such as chemotherapeutics.

Inherent Capability of Self-Assembling Nanostructures in Specific Proteasome Activation for Cancer Cell Pyroptosis

Understanding the direct interaction of nanostructures per se with biological systems is important for biomedical applications. However, whether nanostructures regulate biological systems by targeting specific cellular proteins remains largely unknown. In the present work, self-assembling nanomicelles are constructed using small-molecule oleanolic acid (OA) as a molecular template. Unexpectedly, without modifications by functional ligands, OA nanomicelles significantly activate cellular proteasome function by directly binding to 20S proteasome subunit alpha 6 (PSMA6). Mechanism study reveals that OA nanomicelles interact with PSMA6 to dynamically modulate its N-terminal domain conformation change, thereby controlling the entry of proteins into 20S proteasome. Subsequently, OA nanomicelles accelerate the degradation of several crucial proteins, thus potently driving cancer cell pyroptosis. For translational medicine, OA nanomicelles exhibit a significant anticancer potential in tumor-bearing mouse models and stimulate immune cell infiltration. Collectively, this proof-of-concept study advances the mechanical understanding of nanostructure-guided biological effects via their inherent capacity to activate proteasome.

pH and GSH dual-responsive drug-controlled nanomicelles for breast cancer treatment

We developed a pH/glutathione (GSH) dual-responsive smart nano-drug delivery system to achieve targeted release of a chemotherapeutic drug at breast tumor site. Doxorubicin (DOX) was linked to polyethylene glycol (PEG) through cis-aconitic anhydride (CA) and disulfide bonds (SS) to obtain the PEG-SS-CA-DOX prodrug, which spontaneously assembled into nanomicelles with a particle size of 48 ± 0.45 nm. PEG-SS-CA-DOX micelles achieved an efficient and rapid release of DOX under dual stimulation by weak acidic pH and high GSH content of tumors, with the release amount reaching 88.0% within 48 h. Cellular uptake experiments demonstrated that PEG-SS-CA-DOX micelles could efficiently transport DOX into cells and rapidly release it in the tumor microenvironment. In addition,in vivoantitumor experiments showed that PEG-SS-CA-DOX had a high inhibition rate of 70% against 4T1 breast cancer cells along with good biosafety. In conclusion, dual-responsive smart nanomicelles can achieve tumor-targeted drug delivery and specific drug release, thus improving therapeutic efficacy of drugs.

Polymeric Nanomicelles Loaded with Anandamide and Their Renal Effects as a Therapeutic Alternative for Hypertension Treatment by Passive Targeting

We have previously demonstrated significant in vitro natriuretic effects of anandamide (AEA) nanoformulation in polymeric nanoparticles, whose size prevents their accumulation in organs, such as the kidneys. Therefore, it is of particular interest to design and test nanostructures that can pharmacologically accumulate in these organs. In this regard, we prepared and characterized polymeric nanomicelles (~14 and 40 nm). Likewise, their biodistribution was determined. Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive rats (WKY), n = 3 per group, were divided into five treatment conditions: control, sham, free AEA freshly dispersed in aqueous solution or 24 h after its dispersion, and AEA encapsulated in nanomicelles. The kidneys were the main site of accumulation of the nanoformulation after 24 h. Freshly dispersed free AEA showed its classical triphasic response in SHR, which was absent from all other treatments. Nanoformulated AEA produced a sustained antihypertensive effect over 2 h, accompanied by a significant increase in fractional sodium excretion (FSE %). These effects were not observed in WKY, sham, or free AEA-treated rats after 24 h of its aqueous dispersion. Without precedent, we demonstrate in vivo natriuretic, diuretic, and hypotensive effects of AEA nanoformulation in polymeric nanomicelles, suggesting its possible use as a new antihypertensive agent with intravenous administration and passive renal accumulation.

Can Nanomedicinal Approaches Provide an Edge to the Efficacy of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors?

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are effective drug molecules for the treatment of various cancers. Nanomedicinal interventions and approaches may not only provide carrying capacities for TKIs but also potentially target tumor-specific environments and even cellular compartments. Nano-inspired drug delivery systems may hence enhance the efficacy of the drugs through enhanced tumour-availability resulting in greater efficacy and decreased side effects. A variety of nanosystems have been developed for the delivery of TKIs for the enhanced treatment of cancers, each with their own preparation methods and physicochemical properties. This review will therefore discuss the applicability of nano-interventions towards combination therapies, dose reduction, and greater potential treatment outcomes. The individual nanosystems have been highlighted with emphasis on the developed systems and their efficacy against various cancer cell lines and models.

Combined Ibuprofen-Nanoconjugate Micelles with E-Selectin for Effective Sunitinib Anticancer Therapy

Introduction

Sunitinib, a first-line therapy with a certain effect, was utilized in the early stages of renal cell carcinoma treatment. However, its clinical toxicity, side effects, and its limited bioavailability, resulted in inadequate clinical therapeutic efficacy. Building neoteric, simple, and safe drug delivery systems with existing drugs offers new options. Therefore, we aimed to construct a micelle to improve the clinical efficacy of sunitinib by reusing ibuprofen.

Methods

We synthesized the sialic acid-poly (ethylene glycol)-ibuprofen (SA-PEG-IBU) amphipathic conjugate in two-step reaction. The SA-PEG-IBU amphiphilic conjugates can form into stable SPI nanomicelles in aqueous solution, which can be further loaded sunitinib (SU) to obtain the SPI/SU system. Following nanomicelle creation, sialic acid exposed to the nanomicelle surface can recognize the overexpressed E-selectin receptor on the membrane of cancer cells to enhance cellular uptake. The properties of morphology, stability, and drug release about the SPI/SU nanomicelles were investigated. Confocal microscopy and flow cytometry were used to assess the cellular uptake efficiency of nanomicelles in vitro. Finally, a xenograft tumor model in nude mice was constructed to investigate the body distribution and tumor suppression of SPI/SU in vivo.

Results

The result showed that SPI nanomicelles exhibited excellent tumor targeting performance and inhibited the migration and invasion of tumor cell in vitro. The SPI nanomicelles can improve the accumulation of drugs in the tumor site that showed effective tumor inhibition in vivo. In addition, H&E staining and immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that the SPI/SU nanomicelles had a superior therapeutic effect and lower biotoxicity.

Conclusion

The SPI/SU nanomicelles displayed excellent anti-tumor ability, and can suppress the metastasis of tumor cell by decreasing the expression of Cyclooxygenase-2 due to the ibuprofen, providing an optimistic clinical application potential by developing a simple but safe drug delivery system.

Dual-Enhanced Pluronic Nanoformulated Methotrexate-Based Treatment Approach for Breast Cancer: Development and Evaluation of In Vitro and In Vivo Efficiency

Breast cancer is a prevalent tumor and causes deadly metastatic complications. Myriad cancer types, including breast cancer, are effectively treated by methotrexate (MTX). However, MTX hydrophobicity, adverse effects and the development of resistance have inspired a search for new effective strategies to overcome these challenges. These may include the addition of a bioenhancer and/or encapsulation into appropriate nano-based carriers. In the present study, the anticancer effect of MTX was fortified through dual approaches. First, the concomitant use of piperine (PIP) as a bioenhancer with MTX, which was investigated in the MCF-7 cell line. The results depicted significantly lower IC₅₀ values for the combination (PIP/MTX) than for MTX. Second, PIP and MTX were individually nanoformulated into F-127 pluronic nanomicelles (PIP-NMs) and F-127/P-105 mixed pluronic nanomicelles (MTX-MNMs), respectively, validated by several characterization techniques, and the re-investigated cytotoxicity of PIP-NMs and MTX-MNMs was fortified. Besides, the PIP-NMs/MTX-MNMs demonstrated further cytotoxicity enhancement. The PIP-NMs/MTX-MNMs combination was analyzed by flow cytometry to understand the cell death mechanism. Moreover, the in vivo assessment of PIP-NMs/MTX-MNMs was adopted through the Ehrlich ascites model, which revealed a significant reduction of the tumor weight. However, some results of the tumor markers showed that the addition of PIP-NMs to MTX-MNMs did not significantly enhance the antitumor effect.

Formulation of Nanomicelles Loaded with Cannabidiol as a Platform for Neuroprotective Therapy

The present study is focused on the development of cannabidiol-loaded polymeric nanomicelles as a drug delivery system with neuroprotective effects. Cannabidiol was loaded in Pluronic micelles (Pluronic P123 or its combination with Pluronic F127) possessing an average diameter smaller than 50 nm and high encapsulation efficiency for the hydrophobic drug (80% and 84%, respectively). The successful encapsulation and transformation of cannabidiol in amorphous phase were observed by IR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, respectively. Studies with neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y and Neuro-2a) showed that the pure cannabidiol caused a dose-dependent reduction of cell viability, whereas its loading into the micelles decreased cytotoxicity. Further, neuroprotective effects of pure and micellar cannabidiol were examined in a model of H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress in both neuroblastoma cells. The pre-treatment of cell lines with cannabidiol loaded into the mixed Pluronic P123/F127 micelles exerted significantly stronger protection against the oxidative stress compared to pure cannabidiol and cannabidiol in single Pluronic P123 micelles. Interestingly, the empty mixed P123/F127 micelles demonstrated protective activity against the oxidative stress. In conclusion, the study revealed the opportunity to formulate a new drug delivery system of cannabidiol, in particular nanosized micellar aqueous dispersion, that could be considered as a perspective platform for cannabidiol application in neurodegenerative diseases.

Caffeic Acid Modified Nanomicelles Inhibit Articular Cartilage Deterioration and Reduce Disease Severity in Experimental Inflammatory Arthritis

Inflammation plays an important role in the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). NR4A1 is an anti-inflammatory orphan nuclear receptor involved in protection from inflammatory stimuli in RA. In this study we have explored the anti-inflammatory potential of the FDA-approved drug 9-aminoacridine (9AA) and the natural compound caffeic acid (CA) conjugated to nanomicelles for the treatment of RA. We have synthesized methoxy polyethylene glycol polycaprolactone block copolymer (mPEG-b-PCL) by ring opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone. Then, we conjugated the hydrophilic caffeic acid (CA) with mPEG-b-PCL micelles via Steglich esterification and incorporated the 9AA drug. These nanomicelles were formulated by the solvent evaporation method with a size distribution around 190 nm and showed maximum drug loading capacity along with sustained drug release behavior. Furthermore, we tested the therapeutic potential of the formulated 9AA-encapsulated CA-conjugated nanomicelles (9AA-NMs) against an experimental RA model. We observed promising results which showed alleviation of arthritic symptoms by reducing inflammation, joint damage, bone erosion, and swelling. Further, collagen destruction was significantly reduced in articular cartilage, as shown by safranin-O and toluidine blue staining. The protective mechanism might be due to the simultaneous inhibition of NF-κB by 9AA and CA, whereas the activation of NR4A1 by 9AA leads to the suppression of HIF-1α. This combined therapeutic effect of 9AA and CA has enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of 9AA-NM and markedly reduced the severity of inflammatory arthritis. Unlike existing drugs for pain management and with limited efficacy, 9AA-NM exerted a disease-relevant activation/blockade that alleviated inflammation and exhibited marked therapeutic efficacy against RA.

CD123 Antagonistic Peptides Assembled with Nanomicelles Act as Monotherapeutics to Combat Refractory Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common type of acute leukemia in adults. Due to the development of drug resistance to traditional chemotherapies and high relapse rate, AML still has a low survival rate and there is in an urgent need for better treatment strategies. CD123 is widely expressed by AML cells, also associated with the poor prognosis of AML. In this study, we fabricated nanomicelles loaded with a lab-designed CD123 antagonistic peptide, which were referred to as ^mPO-6. The antagonistic and therapeutic effects were investigated with CD123⁺ AML cell lines and a refractory AML mouse (AE and CKIT^D816V) model. Results show that ^mPO-6 can specifically bind to the CD123⁺ AML cells and inhibit the cell viability effectively. Intravenous administration of ^mPO-6 significantly reduces the percentage of AML cells' infiltration and prolongs the median survival of AML mice. Further, the efficiency of ^mPO-6 is demonstrated to interfere with the axis of CD123/IL-3 via regulating the activation of STAT5, PI3K/AKT, and NF-κB signaling pathways related to cell proliferation or apoptosis at the level of mRNA and protein in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, the novel CD123 antagonistic peptide micelle formulation ^mPO-6 can significantly enhance apoptosis and prolong the survival of AML mice by effectively interfering with the axis of CD123/IL-3 and therefore is a promising therapeutic candidate for the treatment of refractory AML.

MAGL inhibitor NanoMicellar formulation (MAGL-NanoMicellar) for the development of an antiglaucoma eye drop

The ocular endocannabinoid system (ECS) including enzymes and CB1/CB2 receptors determines various substantial effects, such as anti-inflammatory activity and reduction of the intraocular pressure (IOP). The modulation of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels obtained via MAGL inhibition is considered as a promising pharmacological strategy to activate the ECS. Within the scope of this study, the effect of a selective monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitor (MAGL17b) was investigated by measuring the IOP reduction in normotensive rabbits after performing a solubilisation process of the molecule with non-ionic surfactants, to produce suitable eye drops containing the highest possible concentration of the drug. Furthermore, the study involved the evaluation of cytotoxicity and of in vitro/ex vivo corneal permeation of MAG17b of selected formulations based on polyoxyl(35)castor oil (C-EL) and polyethylene glycol (80) sorbitan monolaurate (TW80). The solubilisation of 0.5 mM MAGL17b with 3% w/w TW80 (TW80/3-17b), through the formation of NanoMicellar structures (diameter of 12.3 nm), determined a significant permeation of MAGL17b, both through excised rabbits corneas and reconstituted corneal epithelium, with a limited corneal epithelial cells death. The blockade of MAGL activity induced a IOP reduction up to 4 mmHg in albino and pigmented rabbits after topical instillation, thus confirming the potential efficacy of the MAGL inhibition approach in the treatment of ocular pathologies.

Design of an L-Valine-Modified Nanomicelle-Based Drug Delivery System for Overcoming Ocular Surface Barriers

The incidence of ocular surface disease (OSD) is increasing, with a trend towards younger ages. However, it is difficult for drugs to reach the deep layers of the cornea due to ocular surface barriers, and bioavailability is less than 5%. In this study, DSPE-PEG2000 was modified with L-valine (L-Val), and an HS15/DSPE-PEG2000-L-Val nanomicelle delivery system containing baicalin (BC) (BC@HS15/DSPE-PEG2000-L-Val) was constructed using thin-film hydration, with a high encapsulation rate, small particle size and no irritation to the ocular surface. Retention experiments on the ocular surface of rabbits and an in vivo corneal permeation test showed that, compared with the control, nanomicelles not only prolonged retention time but also enhanced the ability to deliver drugs to the deep layers of the cornea. The results of a protein inhibition and protein expression assay showed that nanomicelles could increase uptake in human corneal epithelial cells (HCEC) through energy-dependent endocytosis mediated by clathrin, caveolin and the carrier pathway mediated by PepT1 by inhibiting the overexpression of claudin-1 and ZO-1 and suppressing the expression of PepT1-induced by drug stimulation. These results indicate that BC@HS15/DSPE-PEG2000-L-Val is suitable for drug delivery to the deep layers of the ocular surface, providing a potential approach for the development of ocular drug delivery systems.

Development of a Localized Drug Delivery System with a Step-by-Step Cell Internalization Capacity for Cancer Immunotherapy

How to precisely reprogram tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and combine them with immunogenic cell death (ICD) is still a great challenge in enhancing the antitumor immunotherapeutic effect. Here, we developed a localized drug delivery system with a step-by-step cell internalization ability based on a hierarchical-structured fiber device. The chemotherapeutic agent-loaded nanomicelles are encapsulated in the internal chambers of the fiber, which could first be internalized by actively targeting tumor cells to induce ICD. Next, the rod-like microparticles can be gradually formed from long to short shape through hydrolysis of the fiber matrix in the tumor microenvironment and selectively phagocytosed by TAMs but not to tumor cells when the length becomes less than 3 μm. The toll-like receptors 7 (TLR7) agonist imiquimod could be released from these microparticles in the cytoplasm to reprogram M2-like TAMs. The in vivo results exhibit that this localized system can synergistically induce an antitumor immune response and achieve an excellent antitumor efficiency. Therefore, this system will provide a promising treatment platform for cancer immunotherapy.

VB12-Sericin-PBLG-IR780 Nanomicelles for Programming Cell Pyroptosis via Photothermal (PTT)/Photodynamic (PDT) Effect-Induced Mitochondrial DNA (mitoDNA) Oxidative Damage

Pyroptosis, a kind of programmed cell death involving inflammation, might be a powerful way to fight against tumors, for example, using immunotherapy. However, how to trigger pyroptosis in cancer cells is an important issue. Photothermal (PTT)/photodynamic (PDT) therapy is a crucial strategy for inducing cancer cell pyroptosis with noninvasiveness. In this work, a sericin derivative modified with poly(γ-benzyl-l-glutamate) (PBLG) could self-assemble and was stable in an aqueous environment. Furthermore, the sericin derivative was conjugated with the tumor-targeting agent VB12 and loaded with IR780. Finally, we successfully synthesized VB12-sericin-PBLG-IR780 nanomicelles. The as-designed nanomicelles showed appropriate particle sizes, spherical morphology, improved photothermal stability, and high photothermal conversion efficiency (∼40%), which generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) simultaneously. Through enhanced cellular uptake, VB12-sericin-PBLG-IR780 could deliver more IR780 into cancer cells. With near-infrared (NIR), the VB12-sericin-PBLG-IR780 could significantly inhibit the expression of ATP synthase, called ATP5MC3, followed by mitochondrial damage. The presence of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mitoROS) led to oxidative damage of mitochondrial DNA (mitoDNA), which further activates NLRP3/Caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD)-dependent pyroptosis and could promote dendritic cell (DC) maturation by pyroptosis. Furthermore, our data showed that VB12-sericin-PBLG-IR780 could achieve a brilliant antitumor effect and could activate DC maturation, initiate T-cell recruiting, and prime adaptive antitumor efficiency. Overall, our well-prepared nanomicelles might offer a tumor-targeted approach for programmed cell pyroptosis and inducing antitumor immunity via photothermal PTT/PDT effect-induced mitoDNA oxidative damage.

Nanomicelles of Radium Dichloride [223Ra]RaCl2 Co-Loaded with Radioactive Gold [198Au]Au Nanoparticles for Targeted Alpha-Beta Radionuclide Therapy of Osteosarcoma

Alpha and beta particulate radiation are used for non-treated neoplasia, due to their ability to reach and remain in tumor sites. Radium-223 (²²³Ra), an alpha emitter, promotes localized cytotoxic effects, while radioactive gold (¹⁹⁸Au), beta-type energy, reduces radiation in the surrounding tissues. Nanotechnology, including several radioactive nanoparticles, can be safely and effectively used in cancer treatment. In this context, this study aims to analyze the antitumoral effects of [²²³Ra]Ra nanomicelles co-loaded with radioactive gold nanoparticles ([¹⁹⁸Au]AuNPs). For this, we synthesize and characterize nanomicelles, as well as analyze some parameters, such as particle size, radioactivity emission, dynamic light scattering, and microscopic atomic force. [²²³Ra]Ra nanomicelles co-loaded with [¹⁹⁸Au]AuNPs, with simultaneous alpha and beta emission, showed no instability, a mean particle size of 296 nm, and a PDI of 0.201 (±0.096). Furthermore, nanomicelles were tested in an in vitro cytotoxicity assay. We observed a significant increase in tumor cell death using combined alpha and beta therapy in the same formulation, compared with these components used alone. Together, these results show, for the first time, an efficient association between alpha and beta therapies, which could become a promising tool in the control of tumor progression.

Controlled Synthesis of Mesoporous π-Conjugated Polymer Nanoarchitectures as Anode for Lithium-ions Battery

Conjugated polymers possess better electron conductivity due to large π-electron conjugated configuration endowing them significant scientific and technological interest. However, the obvious deficiency of active-site underutilization impairs their electrochemical performance. Therefore, designing and engineering π-conjugated polymers with rich redox functional groups and mesoporous architectures could offer new opportunities for them in these emerging applications and further expand their application scopes. Herein, a series of 1, 3, 5-tris(4-aminophenyl) benzene (TAPB)-based π-conjugated mesoporous polymers (π-CMPs) are constructed by one-pot emulsion-induced interface assembly strategy. Furthermore, co-induced in-situ polymerization on 2D interfaces by emulsion and micelle is explored, which delivered sandwiched 2D mesoporous π-CMPs coated graphene oxides (GO@mPTAPB). Benefiting from specific redox-active functional groups, excellent electron conductivity and 2D mesoporous conjugated framework, GO@mPTAPB exhibits high capability of accommodating Li⁺ anions (up to 382 mAh g^-1 at 0.2 A g^-1 ) and outstanding electrochemical stability (87.6% capacity retention after 1000 cycles). The ex-situ Raman and impedance spectrum are further applied to reveal the high reversibility of GO@mPTAPB. This work will greatly promote the development of advanced π-CMPs-based organic anodes towards energy storage devices. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

X-ray-Triggered CO Release Based on GdW10/MnBr(CO)5 Nanomicelles for Synergistic Radiotherapy and Gas Therapy

Carbon monoxide (CO) therapy has become a hot topic in the field of gas therapy because of its application prospect in the treatment of various diseases. Due to the high affinity for human hemoglobin, the main challenge of CO-loaded nanomedicine is the lack of selectivity and toxicity in the delivery process. Although many commercial CO-releasing molecules (CORMs) have been widely developed because of their ability to deliver CO, CORMs still have some disadvantages, including difficult on-demand controlled CO release, poor solubility, and potential toxicity, which are limiting their further application. Herein, an X-ray-triggered CO-releasing nanomicelle system (GW/MnCO@PLGA) based on GdW₁₀ nanoparticles (NPs) (GW) and MnBr(CO)₅ (MnCO) encapsulating in the poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer was constructed for synergistic CO radiotherapy (RT). The production of strongly oxidative superoxide anion (O₂^-•) active species can lead to cell apoptosis under the X-ray sensitization of GW. Moreover, strongly oxidative O₂^-• radicals further oxidize and compete with the Mn center, resulting in the on-demand release of CO. The radio/gas therapy synergy to enhance the efficient tumor inhibition of the nanomicelles was investigated in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, the establishment of an X-ray-triggered controlled CO release system has great application potential for further synergistic RT CO therapy in deep tumor sites.

Phosphorus dendron nanomicelles as a platform for combination anti-inflammatory and antioxidative therapy of acute lung injury

Rationale: Development of novel nanomedicines to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation for anti-inflammatory therapy of acute lung injury (ALI) remains challenging. Here, we present a new nanomedicine platform based on tyramine-bearing two dimethylphosphonate sodium salt (TBP)-modified amphiphilic phosphorus dendron (C11G3) nanomicelles encapsulated with antioxidant drug curcumin (Cur). Methods: C11G3-TBP dendrons were synthesized via divergent synthesis and self-assembled to generate nanomicelles in a water environment to load hydrophobic drug Cur. The created C11G3-TBP@Cur nanomicelles were well characterized and systematically examined in their cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, intracellular ROS elimination, pro-inflammatory cytokine inhibition and alveolar macrophages M2 type repolarization in vitro, and evaluated to assay their anti-inflammatory and antioxidative therapy effects of ALI mice model through pro-inflammatory cytokine expression level in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissue, histological analysis and micro-CT imaging detection of lung tissue injury in vivo. Results: The nanomicelles with rigid phosphorous dendron structure enable high-capacity and stable Cur loading. Very strikingly, the drug-free C11G3-TBP micelles exhibit excellent cytocompatibility and intrinsic anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of nuclear transcription factor-kappa B, thus causing repolarization of alveolar macrophages from M1 type to anti-inflammatory M2 type. Taken together with the strong ROS scavenging property of the encapsulated Cur, the developed nanomicelles enable effective therapy of inflammatory alveolar macrophages in vitro and an ALI mouse model in vivo after atomization administration. Conclusion: The created phosphorus dendron nanomicelles can be developed as a general nanomedicine platform for combination anti-inflammatory and antioxidative therapy of inflammatory diseases.

Multifunctional Mitochondria-Targeting Nanosystems for Enhanced Anticancer Efficacy

Mitochondria, a kind of subcellular organelle, play crucial roles in cancer cells as an energy source and as a generator of reactive substrates, which concern the generation, proliferation, drug resistance, and other functions of cancer. Therefore, precise delivery of anticancer agents to mitochondria can be a novel strategy for enhanced cancer treatment. Mitochondria have a four-layer structure with a high negative potential, which thereby prevents many molecules from reaching the mitochondria. Luckily, the advances in nanosystems have provided enormous hope to overcome this challenge. These nanosystems include liposomes, nanoparticles, and nanomicelles. Here, we summarize the very latest developments in mitochondria-targeting nanomedicines in cancer treatment as well as focus on designing multifunctional mitochondria-targeting nanosystems based on the latest nanotechnology.

Supramolecular Dual Drug Nanomicelles for Circumventing Multidrug Resistance

Overexpressed P-glycoprotein (P-gp), as the key factor in multidrug resistance (MDR), can greatly reduce intracellular drug levels as a result of chemotherapeutic drug efflux out of cancer cells. Although various P-gp antagonists have been developed to circumvent the MDR effect, the common strategies of physical entrapment or chemical conjugation of anticancer drugs may inevitably induce unstable circulation in vivo or poor response in cancer cells, greatly limiting the therapeutic efficacy. Herein a double-drug-based supramolecular complex (DDSC) was first constructed based on the host-guest interactions between two active drugs, curcumin (Cur)-bridged bis(β-cyclodextrin) and ferrocene-linked camptothecin (CPT). Supramolecular dual drug nanomicelles (SDDNMs) formed by the DDSC self-assembly are proposed to work against the MDR effect, in which Cur as a P-gp antagonist in combination with CPT realized stable transport in vivo and efficient stimuli-responsiveness in cells. In vitro and in vivo studies further confirmed that SDDNMs effectively circumvented the drug efflux induced by the MDR effect and remarkably enhanced the synergistic therapeutic effects.

Luminescence Ratiometric Nanothermometry Regulated by Tailoring Annihilators of Triplet-Triplet Annihilation Upconversion Nanomicelles

Triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) upconversion is a special non-linear photophysical process that converts low-energy photons into high-energy photons based on sensitizer/annihilator pairs. Here, we constructed a novel luminescence ratiometric nanothermometer based on TTA upconversion nanomicelles by encapsulating sensitizer/annihilator molecules into a temperature-sensitive amphiphilic triblock polymer and obtained good linear relationships between the luminescence ratio (integrated intensity ratio of upconverted luminescence peak to the downshifted phosphorescence peak) and the temperature. We also found chemical modification of annihilators would rule out the interference of the polymer concentration and stereochemical engineering of annihilators would readily regulate the thermal sensitivity.

Nanotechnology for Topical Drug Delivery to the Anterior Segment of the Eye

Topical drug delivery is one of the most challenging aspects of eye therapy. Eye drops are the most prevalent drug form, especially for widely distributed anterior segment eye diseases (cataracts, glaucoma, dry eye syndrome, inflammatory diseases, etc.), because they are convenient and easy to apply by patients. However, conventional drug formulations are usually characterized by short retention time in the tear film, insufficient contact with epithelium, fast elimination, and difficulties in overcoming ocular tissue barriers. Not more than 5% of the total drug dose administered in eye drops reaches the interior ocular tissues. To overcome the ocular drug delivery barriers and improve drug bioavailability, various conventional and novel drug delivery systems have been developed. Among these, nanosize carriers are the most attractive. The review is focused on the different drug carriers, such as synthetic and natural polymers, as well as inorganic carriers, with special attention to nanoparticles and nanomicelles. Studies in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that new formulations could help to improve the bioavailability of the drugs, provide sustained drug release, enhance and prolong their therapeutic action. Promising results were obtained with drug-loaded nanoparticles included in in situ gel.

Development and Evaluation of Polyvinylpyrrolidone K90 and Poloxamer 407 Self-Assembled Nanomicelles: Enhanced Topical Ocular Delivery of Artemisinin

Age-related macular degeneration is a multifactorial disease affecting the posterior segment of the eye and is characterized by aberrant nascent blood vessels that leak blood and fluid. It ends with vision loss. In the present study, artemisinin which is poorly water-soluble and has potent anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory properties was formulated into nanomicelles and characterized for its ocular application and anti-angiogenic activity using a CAM assay. Artemisinin-loaded nanomicelles were prepared by varying the concentrations of PVP k90 and poloxamer 407 at different ratios and showed spherical shape particles in the size range of 41-51 nm. The transparency and cloud point of the developed artemisinin-loaded nanomicelles was found to be 99-94% and 68-70 °C, respectively. The in vitro release of artemisinin from the nanomicelles was found to be 96.0-99.0% within 8 h. The trans-corneal permeation studies exhibited a 1.717-2.169 µg permeation of the artemisinin from nanomicelles through the excised rabbit eye cornea for 2 h. Drug-free nanomicelles did not exhibit noticeable DNA damage and showed an acceptable level of hemolytic potential. Artemisinin-loaded nanomicelles exhibited remarkable anti-angiogenic activity compared to artemisinin suspension. Hence, the formulated artemisinin-loaded nanomicelles might have the potential for the treatment of AMD.

Skin wound healing promoted by novel curcumin-loaded micelle hydrogel

Background

The development of biomaterials with the ability to promote skin wound healing is an important topic in the field of biomedical science. In this study, a topical curcumin (Cur) gel [Cur/hyaluronic acid (HA)] was prepared by combining curcumin-loaded PCL-b-PEG-b-PCL (PECE) nanomicelles (PCEC/Cur) and HA to effectively promote skin wound healing. Continuous drug release from PCEC/Cur can provide long-term protection and treatment of skin wounds.

Methods

The study was completed in two stages. The first stage (in vitro): PCEC/Cur were prepared by thin film hydration method. The second stage (in vivo): 36 anesthetized rats were used to prepare a round full-thickness skin defect wound with a diameter of 23 mm on the dorsal side of the spine, and the rats were randomly divided into 4 groups with 9 rats in each group.

Results

The results showed that wounds in the Cur/HA group were restored to normal after 14 days after operation, representing 96%±3% wound healing. Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining showed that hair follicles in the Cur/HA group were visible and that the re-epithelialization time was earlier. Masson staining showed that Cur/HA promoted the formation of collagen fibers. Immunohistochemical observation showed that angiogenesis and subsequent healing of the wound surface was enhanced in the Cur/HA group.

Conclusions

The injectable hyaluronic acid gel complex Cur/HA is a promising candidate material for a wound dressing to promote healing.

Orthogonal targeting of osteoclasts and myeloma cells for radionuclide stimulated dynamic therapy induces multidimensional cell death pathways

Rationale: Multiple myeloma (MM) is a multifocal malignancy of bone marrow plasma cells, characterized by vicious cycles of remission and relapse that eventually culminate in death. The disease remains mostly incurable largely due to the complex interactions between the bone microenvironment (BME) and MM cells (MMC). In the “vicious cycle” of bone disease, abnormal activation of osteoclasts (OCs) by MMC causes severe osteolysis, promotes immune evasion, and stimulates the growth of MMC. Disrupting these cancer-stroma interactions would enhance treatment response.

Methods: To disrupt this cycle, we orthogonally targeted nanomicelles (NM) loaded with non-therapeutic doses of a photosensitizer, titanocene (TC), to VLA-4 (α4ß1, CD49d/CD29) expressing MMC (MM1.S) and αvß3 (CD51/CD61) expressing OC. Concurrently, a non-lethal dose of a radiopharmaceutical, ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose ([¹⁸F]FDG) administered systemically interacted with TC (radionuclide stimulated therapy, RaST) to generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). The in vitro and in vivo effects of RaST were characterized in MM1.S cell line, as well as in xenograft and isograft MM animal models.

Results: Our data revealed that RaST induced non-enzymatic hydroperoxidation of cellular lipids culminating in mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA fragmentation, and caspase-dependent apoptosis of MMC using VLA-4 avid TC-NMs. RaST upregulated the expression of BAX, Bcl-2, and p53, highlighting the induction of apoptosis via the BAK-independent pathway. The enhancement of multicopper oxidase enzyme F5 expression, which inhibits lipid hydroperoxidation and Fenton reaction, was not sufficient to overcome RaST-induced increase in the accumulation of irreversible function-perturbing α,ß-aldehydes that exerted significant and long-lasting damage to both DNA and proteins. In vivo, either VLA-4-TC-NM or αvß3-TC-NMs RaST induced a significant therapeutic effect on immunocompromised but not immunocompetent MM-bearing mouse models. Combined treatment with both VLA-4-TC-NM and αvß3-TC-NMs synergistically inhibited osteolysis, reduced tumor burden, and prevented rapid relapse in both in vivo models of MM.

Conclusions: By targeting MM and bone cells simultaneously, combination RaST suppressed MM disease progression through a multi-prong action on the vicious cycle of bone cancer. Instead of using the standard multidrug approach, our work reveals a unique photophysical treatment paradigm that uses nontoxic doses of a single light-sensitive drug directed orthogonally to cancer and bone cells, followed by radionuclide-stimulated generation of ROS to inhibit tumor progression and minimize osteolysis in both immunocompetent murine and immunocompromised human MM models.

Enhancing anti-PD-1 Immunotherapy by Nanomicelles Self-Assembled from Multivalent Aptamer Drug Conjugates

A tumor-targeting enhanced chemotherapy, enabled by aptamer-drug conjugate nanomicelles, is reported that boosts antitumor immune responses. Multivalent aptamer drug conjugate (ApMDC), an amphiphilic telodendrimer consisting of a hydrophilic aptamer and a hydrophobic monodendron anchored with four anticancer drugs by acid-labile linkers, was designed and synthesized. By co-self-assembly with an ApMDC analogue, in which aptamer is replaced with polyethylene glycol, the surface aptamer density of these nanomicelles can be screened to reach an optimal complementation between blood circulation and tumor-targeting ability. Optimized nanomicelles can enhance immunogenic cell death of tumor cells, which strikingly augments the tumor-specific immune responses of the checkpoint blockade in immunocompetent tumor-bearing mice. ApMDC nanomicelles represent a robust platform for structure-function optimization of drug conjugates and nanomedicines.

Rosuvastatin Nanomicelles Target Neuroinflammation and Improve Neurological Deficit in a Mouse Model of Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Background

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), a devastating subtype of stroke, has a poor prognosis. However, there is no effective therapy currently available due to its complex pathological progression, in which neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in secondary brain injury. In this work, the use of statin-loaded nanomicelles to target the neuroinflammation and improve the efficacy was studied in a mouse model of ICH.

Methods

Rosuvastatin-loaded nanomicelles were prepared by a co-solvent evaporation method using polyethylene glycol-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PEG-PCL) copolymer as a carrier. The prepared nanomicelles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS), and then in vitro and in vivo studies were performed.

Results

TEM shows that the nanomicelles are spherical with a diameter of about 19.41 nm, and DLS shows that the size, zeta potential, and polymer dispersity index of the nanomicelles were 23.37 nm, −19.2 mV, and 0.221, respectively. The drug loading content is 8.28%. The in vivo study showed that the nanomicelles significantly reduced neuron degeneration, inhibited the inflammatory cell infiltration, reduced the brain edema, and improved neurological deficit. Furthermore, it was observed that the nanomicelles promoted the polarization of microglia/macrophages to M2 phenotype, and also the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and TNF-α, was significantly down-regulated, while the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was significantly up-regulated. The related mechanism was proposed and discussed.

Conclusion

The nanomicelles treatment suppressed the neuroinflammation that might contribute to the promoted nerve functional recovery of the ICH mouse, making it potential to be applied in clinic.

Bile Acid Tethered Docetaxel-Based Nanomicelles Mitigate Tumor Progression through Epigenetic Changes

In this study, we describe the engineering of sub-100 nm nanomicelles (DTX-PC NMs) derived from phosphocholine derivative of docetaxel (DTX)-conjugated lithocholic acid (DTX-PC) and poly(ethylene glycol)-tethered lithocholic acid. Administration of DTX-PC NMs decelerate tumor progression and increase the mice survivability compared to Taxotere (DTX-TS), the FDA-approved formulation of DTX. Unlike DTX-TS, DTX-PC NMs do not cause any systemic toxicity and slow the decay rate of plasma DTX concentration in rodents and non-rodent species including non-human primates. We further demonstrate that DTX-PC NMs target demethylation of CpG islands of Sparcl1 (a tumor suppressor gene) by suppressing DNA methyltransferase activity and increase the expression of Sparcl1 that leads to tumor regression. Therefore, this unique system has the potential to improve the quality of life in cancer patients and can be translated as a next-generation chemotherapeutic.

Antimicrobial activity of amphiphilic nanomicelles loaded with curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa alone and activated by blue laser light

The aim of this work was to assess the antimicrobial efficacy on Pseudomonas aeruginosa of nanomicelles loaded with curcumin (CUR) alone and activated by blue laser light in an antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) approach. First, free CUR in liquid suspension and loaded in three amphiphilic nanomicelles (CUR-DAPMA, CUR-SPD and CUR-SPM) were tested both on bacteria and keratinocytes. While free CUR exerted limited efficacy showing moderate cytotoxicity, a strong inhibition of bacterial growth was obtained using all three nanosystems without toxicity on eukaryotic cells. CUR-SPM emerged as the most effective, and was therefore employed in APDT experiments. Among the three sublethal blue laser (λ 445 nm) protocols tested, the ones characterized by a fluence of 18 and 30 J/cm² further decreased the antimicrobial concentration to 50 nM. The combination of blue laser APDT with CUR-SPM nanomicelles results in an effective synergistic activity that represents a promising novel therapeutic approach on resistant species.

In Situ Self-Assembly Nanomicelle Microneedles for Enhanced Photoimmunotherapy via Autophagy Regulation Strategy

Although certain therapeutic agents with immunogenic properties may enhance antitumor immunity, cancer cells can eliminate harmful cytoplasmic entities and escape immunosurveillance by orchestrating autophagy. Here, an ingenious in situ self-assembled nanomicelle dissolving microneedle (DMN) patch was designed for intralesional delivery of immunogenic cell death-inducer (IR780) and autophagy inhibitor (chloroquine, CQ) coencapsulated micelles (C/I-Mil) for efficient antitumor therapy. Upon insertion into skin, the self-assembled C/I-Mil was generated, followed by electrostatic binding of hyaluronic acid, the matrix material of DMNs, accompanied by the dissolution of DMNs. Subsequently, photothermal-mediated size-tunable C/I-Mil could effectively penetrate into deep tumor tissue and be massively internalized via CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis, precisely ablate tumors with the help of autophagy inhibition, and promote the release of damage-associated molecular patterns. Moreover, CQ could also act as an immune modulator to remodel tumor-associated macrophages toward the M1 phenotype via activating NF-κB. In vivo results showed that the localized photoimmunotherapy in synergy with autophagy inhibition could effectively eliminate primary and distant tumors, followed by a relapse-free survival of more than 40 days via remodeling the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Our work provides a versatile, generalizable framework for employing self-assembled DMN-mediated autophagy inhibition integrated with photoimmunotherapy to sensitize superficial tumors and initiate optimal antitumor immunity.

Combination of Nanomicellar Technology and In Situ Gelling Polymer as Ocular Drug Delivery System (ODDS) for Cyclosporine-A

A combination of in situ gelling systems and a loaded drug self-assembling nanomicellar carrier was chosen in this study as a new potential Ocular Drug Delivery System (ODDS) for Cyclosporine-A (CyA), a poorly water-soluble drug. Two non-ionic surfactants (d-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate, VitE-TPGS and polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated castor oil, RH-40) were used to produce the nanomicelles. The physical-chemical characterization of the nanomicelles in terms of CyA entrapment (EE%) and loading efficiency (LE%), cloud point (CP), regeneration time (RT), size and polydispersity index (PI) allowed us to select the best combination of surfactant mixture, which showed appropriate stability, high CyA-EE (99.07%), very small and homogeneous dimensions and favored the solubilization of an amount of CyA (0.144% w/w) comparable to that contained in marketed emulsion Ikervis^®. The selected nanomicellar formulation incorporated into optimized ion-sensitive polymeric dispersions of gellan gum (GG-LA: 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20% w/w) able to trigger the sol-gel transition after instillation was characterized from technological (osmolality, pH, gelling capacity, rheological behavior, wettability, TEM and storage stability at 4 and 20 °C) and biopharmaceutical points of view. This new combined approach allowed us to obtain clear aqueous dispersions that were easy to instill and able to form a viscous gel when in contact with the tear fluid, improving CyA ocular bioavailability. Furthermore, this new ODDS prevented CyA transcorneal permeation, exhibited low cytotoxicity and prolonged the CyA resident time in the precorneal area compared to Ikervis^®.

Smart Responsive Quercetin-Conjugated Glycol Chitosan Prodrug Micelles for Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

The incidence and progression of inflammatory bowel disease are closely related to oxidative stress caused by excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). To develop an efficacious and safe nanotherapy against inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), we designed a novel pH/ROS dual-responsive prodrug micelle GC-B-Que as an inflammatory-targeted drug, which was comprised by active quercetin (Que) covalently linked to biocompatible glycol chitosan (GC) by aryl boronic ester as a responsive linker. The optimized micelles exhibited well-controlled physiochemical properties and stability in a physiological environment. Time-dependent NMR spectra traced the changes in the polymer structure in the presence of H₂O₂, confirming the release of the drug. The in vitro drug release studies indicated a low release rate (<20 wt %) in physiological conditions, but nearly complete release (>95 wt % after 72 h incubation) in a pH 5.8 medium containing 10 μM H₂O₂, exhibiting a pH/ROS dual-responsive property and sustained release behavior. Importantly, the negligible drug release in a simulated gastric environment in 1 h allowed us to perform intragastric administration, which has potential to achieve the oral delivery by mature enteric-coating modification in future. Further in vivo activities and biodistribution experiments found that the GC-B-Que micelles tended to accumulate in intestinal inflammation sites and showed better therapeutic efficacy than the free drugs (quercetin and mesalazine) in a colitis mice model. Typical inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, and iNOS were significantly suppressed by GC-B-Que micelle treatment. Our work promoted inflammatory-targeted delivery and intestinal drug accumulation for active single drug quercetin and improved the therapeutic effect of IBD. The current study also provided an alternative strategy for designing a smart responsive nanocarrier for a catechol-based drug to better achieve the target drug delivery.

Recent Advances in Nanomicelles Delivery Systems

The efficient and selective delivery of therapeutic drugs to the target site remains the main obstacle in the development of new drugs and therapeutic interventions. Up until today, nanomicelles have shown their prospective as nanocarriers for drug delivery owing to their small size, good biocompatibility, and capacity to effectively entrap lipophilic drugs in their core. Nanomicelles are formed via self-assembly in aqueous media of amphiphilic molecules into well-organized supramolecular structures. Molecular weights and structure of the core and corona forming blocks are important properties that will determine the size of nanomicelles and their shape. Selective delivery is achieved via novel design of various stimuli-responsive nanomicelles that release drugs based on endogenous or exogenous stimulations such as pH, temperature, ultrasound, light, redox potential, and others. This review summarizes the emerging micellar nanocarriers developed with various designs, their outstanding properties, and underlying principles that grant targeted and continuous drug delivery. Finally, future perspectives, and challenges for nanomicelles are discussed based on the current achievements and remaining issues.

Effectively suppressed angiogenesis-mediated retinoblastoma growth using celastrol nanomicelles

Celastrol, a Chinese herbal medicine, has already shown an inhibition effect on retinoblastoma growth activity in our previous research, but its mechanism is not well understood. Angiogenesis is a main driving force in many tumors. Here, we studied whether celastrol could inhibit angiogenesis-mediated retinoblastoma growth, if so, through what mechanism. In this work, we developed celastrol-loaded polymeric nanomicelles to improve the poor water solubility of celastrol. When given an intraperitoneal injection to mice bearing human retinoblastoma xenografts, celastrol nanomicelles (CNMs, 27.2 mg/kg/2 days) significantly reduced the weight and the volume of tumors and decreased tumor angiogenesis. We found that CNMs suppressed hypoxia-induced proliferation, migration, and invasion by human umbilical vascular endothelial cells (EA.hy 926) in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, CNMs inhibited SO-Rb 50 cells-induced sprouting of the vessels and vascular formation in chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay in vitro. To understand the molecular mechanism of these activities, we assessed the signaling pathways in CoCl₂ treated EA.hy 926. CNMs inhibited the hypoxia-induced HIF-1α and VEGF. In conclusion, our results reveal that CNMs target the HIF-1α/VEGF pathway, which may be an important reason for the suppression of retinoblastoma growth and angiogenesis.

Characteristics of Molecularly Engineered Anticancer Drug Conjugated Organic Nanomicelles for Site-Selective Cancer Cell Rupture and Growth Inhibition of Tumor Spheroids

Site-selective uptake and specific biodistribution of chemotherapeutic drugs are essential prerequisites for targeted cancer therapy. Especially, antibody and peptide conjugated drugs have been attempted as localized therapeutic agents. However, the characteristics of drug conjugated nanosystems are less explored, which are limited with their toxicity, low therapeutic efficacy, complicated synthesis, and high costs. Herein, we report a biocompatible (about 95%) molecularly engineered anticancer drug conjugated nanomicelles (∼200 nm in size) for site-selective CD44 overexpressed cancer cell rupture and tumor growth inhibition. Microscopic analysis demonstrates the distinct visualization of organic-organic interfaces (∼5 nm), which are corroborated with spectroscopic measurements confirmed the conjugation of niclosamide drug with hyaluronic acid (NIC-HA). Uniformly distributed hemocompatible (about 99%) organic nanomicelles exhibit the cellular membrane and cytoplasmic targeting with significant cellular rupture (IC₅₀ of 4 μM for MDA MB 231 cells) indicating their inherent targeting ability for cancer cells and cancer stem cells. An inclusive in vitro and in vivo analysis for targeted antitumor activity (HT1080 tumor xenograft model) of NIC-HA nanoconjugates (∼24.6% loading) exhibited promising cancer cell death and tumor growth inhibition (60%, p < 0.05) due to STAT-3 signaling pathway inhibition and induction of apoptosis in CD44-positive triple negative breast cancer cells.

Optimization and Formulation of Nanostructured and Self-Assembled Caseinate Micelles for Enhanced Cytotoxic Effects of Paclitaxel on Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a widely used anti-cancer drug for treating various types of solid malignant tumors including breast, ovarian and lung cancers. However, PTX has a low therapeutic response and is linked with acquired resistance, as well as a high incidence of adverse events, such as allergic reactions, neurotoxicity and myelosuppression. The situation is compounded when its complex chemical structure contributes towards hydrophobicity, shortening its circulation time in blood, causing off-target effects and limiting its therapeutic activity against cancer cells. Formulating a smart nano-carrier may overcome the solubility and toxicity issues of the drug and enable its more selective delivery to the cancerous cells. Among the nano-carriers, natural polymers are of great importance due to their excellent biodegradability, non-toxicity and good accessibility. The aim of the present research is to develop self-assembled sodium caseinate nanomicelles (NaCNs) with PTX loaded into the hydrophobic core of NaCNs for effective uptake of the drug in cancer cells and its subsequent intracellular release.

METHODS

The PTX-loaded micelle was characterized with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectra (FTIR), High Resolution-Transmission Electron Microscope (HR-TEM), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX). Following treatment with PTX-loaded NaCNs, cell viability, cellular uptake and morphological changes were analyzed using MCF-7 and MDA-MB 231 human breast cancer cell lines.

RESULTS

We found that PTX-loaded NaCNs efficiently released PTX in an acidic tumor environment, while showing an enhanced cytotoxicity, cellular uptake and in-vivo anti-tumor efficacy in a mouse model of breast cancer when compared to free drug and blank micelles. Additionally, the nanomicelles also presented improved colloidal stability for three months at 4 °C and -20 °C and when placed at a temperature of 37 °C.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the newly developed NaCNs is a promising carrier of PTX to enhance tumor accumulation of the drug while addressing its toxicity issues as well.

Nanomicellar Lenalidomide-Fenretinide Combination Suppresses Tumor Growth in an MYCN Amplified Neuroblastoma Tumor

Purpose

In a previous study, we demonstrated that the combination of fenretinide with lenalidomide, administered by a novel nanomicellar formulation (FLM), provided a strong antitumor effect in a neuroblastoma TrkB-expressing tumor. In this study, we tested the nanomicellar combination in an MYCN amplified neuroblastoma xenograft to assess its efficacy in different tumor genotypes and evaluate the interactions of the nanomicelles with the tumor cells.

Experimental Design

FLM was administered to mice bearing human NLF xenografts to evaluate its efficacy in comparison with the nanomicelles containing fenretinide alone (FM). Confocal laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy images of the NLF cells treated with FLM and FM allowed us to estimate the nanomicelle ability to transport the encapsulated drugs inside the tumor cells. Flow cytometric analysis of the cells from treated tumors was performed to assess the effect of treatment on GD2 expression and NK cell infiltration.

Results

FLM and FM decreased the growth of NLF xenografts at comparable extents during the treatment period. Afterwards, FLM induced a progressive tumor regression without regrowth, while FM treatment was followed by regrowth within 15-20 days after the end of treatment. Both FLM and FM were able to penetrate the tumor cells transporting the encapsulated drugs. FLM transported higher amount of fenretinide inside the cells. Also, FLM treatment strongly increased GD2 expression in treated tumors and slightly decreased the NK infiltration compared to FM.

Conclusion

FLM treatment induced a superior antitumor response than FM in NLF xenografts, presumably due to the combined effects of fenretinide cytotoxicity and lenalidomide antiangiogenic activity. The ability of FLM to penetrate tumor cells, transporting the encapsulated drugs, substantially improved the therapeutic efficiency of this system. Moreover, the enhancement of GD2 expression in FLM treated tumors offers the possibility to further increase the antitumor effect by the use of anti-GD2 CAR-T cells and anti-GD2 antibodies in combination with FLM in multimodal therapies.

Hepatic targeting of glycyrrhetinic acid via nanomicelles based on stearic acid-modified fenugreek gum

This study aimed to increase the solubility of glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) in water and enhance its liver-targeting ability using self-assembling nanomicelles (NMs) based on stearic acid-modified fenugreek gum (FG-C₁₈). The GA/FG-C₁₈ NMs were prepared by an ultrasonication dispersion method. The nanomicelles were spherical particles with a particle size of 198.61 ± 1.58 nm and a zeta potential of -30.12 ± 0.28 mV. The drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were 13.34 ± 0.24% and 80.07 ± 1.44%, respectively. The results of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) indicated that GA was successfully encapsulated into the nanomicelles in a molecularly dispersed state. An in vitro release test showed that GA/FG-C₁₈ NMs possessed a slow drug release profile in PBS (pH 7.4) over 200 h. The cytotoxicity assay indicated that GA/FG-C₁₈ NMs showed much higher inhibitory efficacy in HepG2 cells than in MCF-7 cells. Tissue section studies indicated that the accumulation of DiR-loaded FG-C₁₈ nanomicelles in the liver of mice was higher than that of the DiR solution, and the fluorescence intensity decreased over time. GA/FG-C₁₈ NMs showed a larger area under the curve (AUC) and mean residence time (MRT) compared with free GA after intravenous administration in mice. The in vivo studies showed that GA mainly accumulated in the liver after encapsulation by FG-C₁₈ NMs, and the drug concentration was higher than that of free GA. These results suggested that FG-C₁₈ NMs could serve as a potential drug delivery system for targeting GA to liver tissue.

Prodrugs and nanomicelles to overcome ocular barriers for drug penetration

INTRODUCTION

Ocular barriers hinder drug delivery and reduce drug bioavailability. This article focuses on enhancing drug absorption across the corneal and conjunctival epithelium. Both, transporter targeted prodrug formulations and nanomicellar strategy is proven to enhance the drug permeation of therapeutic agents across various ocular barriers. These strategies can increase aqueous drug solubility and stability of many hydrophobic drugs for topical ophthalmic formulations.

AREAS COVERED

The article discusses various ocular barriers, ocular influx, and efflux transporters. It elaborates various prodrug strategies used for enhancing drug absorption. Along with this, the article also describes nanomicellar formulation, its characteristic and advantages, and applications in for anterior and posterior segment drug delivery.

EXPERT OPINION

Prodrugs and nanomicellar formulations provide an effective strategy for improving drug absorption and drug bioavailability across various ocular barriers. It will be exciting to see the efficacy of nanomicelles for treating back of the eye disorders after their topical application. This is considered as a holy grail of ocular drug delivery due to the dynamic and static ocular barriers, restricting posterior entry of topically applied drug formulations.

Oleic Acid Copolymer as A Novel Upconversion Nanomaterial to Make Doxorubicin-Loaded Nanomicelles with Dual Responsiveness to pH and NIR

Oleic acid (OA) as main component of plant oil is an important solvent but seldom used in the nanocarrier of anticancer drugs because of strong hydrophobicity and little drug release. In order to develop a new type of OA nanomaterial with dual responses to pH and near infrared light (NIR) to achieve the intelligent delivery of anticancer drugs. The novel OA copolymer (mPEG-PEI-(NBS, OA)) was synthesized by grafting OA and o-nitrobenzyl succinate (NBS) onto mPEGylated polyethyleneimine (mPEG-PEI) by amidation reaction. It was further conjugated with NaYF₄:Yb³⁺/Er³⁺ nanoparticles, and encapsulated doxorubicin (DOX) through self-assembly to make upconversion nanomicelles with dual response to pH and NIR. Drug release behavior of DOX, physicochemical characteristics of the nanomicelles were evaluated, along with its cytotoxic profile, as well as the degree of cellular uptake in A549 cells. The encapsulation efficiency and drug loading capacity of DOX in the nanomicelles were 73.84% ± 0.58% and 4.62% ± 0.28%, respectively, and the encapsulated DOX was quickly released in an acidic environment exposed to irradiation at 980 nm. The blank nanomicelles exhibited low cytotoxicity and excellent biocompatibility by MTT assay against A549 cells. The DOX-loaded nanomicelles showed remarkable cytotoxicity to A549 cells under NIR, and promoted the cellular uptake of DOX into the cytoplasm and nucleus of cancer cells. OA copolymer can effectively deliver DOX to cancer cells and achieve tumor targeting through a dual response to pH and NIR.

Assembling Surfactants-Mucoadhesive Polymer Nanomicelles (ASMP-Nano) for Ocular Delivery of Cyclosporine-A

The physiological protective mechanisms of the eye reduce the bioavailability of topically administered drugs above all for those with high molecular weight and /or lipophilic characteristics, such as Cyclosporine A (CyA). The combined strategy based on the association of nanomicelles and mucoadhesive polymer seems promising since a limited number of commercial products containing CyA have been recently approved. The scope of this investigation was the design of Assembling Surfactants-Mucoadhesive Polymer Nanomicelles (ASMP-Nano), based on a binary system of two surfactants in combination with hyaluronic acid, and their biopharmaceutical evaluation. The optimisation of the ASMP-Nano in term of the amount of surfactants, CyA-loading and size determined the selection of the clear and stable Nano1HAB-CyA formulation containing 0.105% w/w CyA loaded-nanomicelles with a size of 14.41 nm. The nanostructured system had a protective effect towards epithelial corneal cells with a cell viability of more than 80%. It interacted with cellular barriers favouring the uptake and the accumulation of CyA into the cells as evidenced by fluorescent probe distribution, by hindering CyA permeation through reconstituted corneal epithelial tissue. In pharmacokinetics study on rabbits, the nanomicellar carrier prolonged the CyA retention time in the precorneal area mainly in presence of hyaluronic acid (HA), a mucoadhesive polymer.