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Drewry KR, Jones CN, Hayes W, Beighley RE, Wang Q, Hochard J, Mize W, Fowlkes J, Goforth C, Pieper KJ. Using Inundation Extents to Predict Microbial Contamination in Private Wells after Flooding Events. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:5220-5228. [PMID: 38478973 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Disaster recovery poses unique challenges for residents reliant on private wells. Flooding events are drivers of microbial contamination in well water, but the relationship observed between flooding and contamination varies substantially. Here, we investigate the performance of different flood boundaries─the FEMA 100 year flood hazard boundary, height above nearest drainage-derived inundation extents, and satellite-derived extents from the Dartmouth Flood Observatory─in their ability to identify well water contamination following Hurricane Florence. Using these flood boundaries, we estimated about 2600 wells to 108,400 private wells may have been inundated─over 2 orders of magnitude difference based on boundary used. Using state-generated routine and post-Florence testing data, we observed that microbial contamination rates were 7.1-10.5 times higher within the three flood boundaries compared to routine conditions. However, the ability of the flood boundaries to identify contaminated samples varied spatially depending on the type of flooding (e.g., riverine, overbank, coastal). While participation in testing increased after Florence, rates were overall still low. With <1% of wells tested, there is a critical need for enhanced well water testing efforts. This work provides an understanding of the strengths and limitations of inundation mapping techniques, which are critical for guiding postdisaster well water response and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyla R Drewry
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - C Nathan Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35401, United States
| | - Wesley Hayes
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - R Edward Beighley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jacob Hochard
- Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82072, United States
| | - Wilson Mize
- Division of Public Health, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, North Carolina 27609, United States
| | - Jon Fowlkes
- Division of Public Health, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, North Carolina 27609, United States
| | - Chris Goforth
- State Laboratory of Public Health, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, North Carolina 27609, United States
| | - Kelsey J Pieper
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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Burch TR, Stokdyk JP, Durso LM, Borchardt MA. Quantitative microbial risk assessment for ingestion of antibiotic resistance genes from private wells contaminated by human and livestock fecal sources. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0162923. [PMID: 38335112 PMCID: PMC10952444 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01629-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
We used quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate ingestion risk for intI1, erm(B), sul1, tet(A), tet(W), and tet(X) in private wells contaminated by human and/or livestock feces. Genes were quantified with five human-specific and six bovine-specific microbial source-tracking (MST) markers in 138 well-water samples from a rural Wisconsin county. Daily ingestion risk (probability of swallowing ≥1 gene) was based on daily water consumption and a Poisson exposure model. Calculations were stratified by MST source and soil depth over the aquifer where wells were drilled. Relative ingestion risk was estimated using wells with no MST detections and >6.1 m soil depth as a referent category. Daily ingestion risk varied from 0 to 8.8 × 10-1 by gene and fecal source (i.e., human or bovine). The estimated number of residents ingesting target genes from private wells varied from 910 (tet(A)) to 1,500 (intI1 and tet(X)) per day out of 12,000 total. Relative risk of tet(A) ingestion was significantly higher in wells with MST markers detected, including wells with ≤6.1 m soil depth contaminated by bovine markers (2.2 [90% CI: 1.1-4.7]), wells with >6.1 m soil depth contaminated by bovine markers (1.8 [1.002-3.9]), and wells with ≤6.1 m soil depth contaminated by bovine and human markers simultaneously (3.1 [1.7-6.5]). Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) were not necessarily present in viable microorganisms, and ingestion is not directly associated with infection. However, results illustrate relative contributions of human and livestock fecal sources to ARG exposure and highlight rural groundwater as a significant point of exposure.IMPORTANCEAntibiotic resistance is a global public health challenge with well-known environmental dimensions, but quantitative analyses of the roles played by various natural environments in transmission of antibiotic resistance are lacking, particularly for drinking water. This study assesses risk of ingestion for several antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and the class 1 integron gene (intI1) in drinking water from private wells in a rural area of northeast Wisconsin, United States. Results allow comparison of drinking water as an exposure route for antibiotic resistance relative to other routes like food and recreational water. They also enable a comparison of the importance of human versus livestock fecal sources in the study area. Our study demonstrates the previously unrecognized importance of untreated rural drinking water as an exposure route for antibiotic resistance and identifies bovine fecal material as an important exposure factor in the study setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tucker R. Burch
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
- U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Laboratory for Infectious Disease and the Environment, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Joel P. Stokdyk
- U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Laboratory for Infectious Disease and the Environment, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Lisa M. Durso
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Agroecosystem Management Research Unit, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Mark A. Borchardt
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
- U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Laboratory for Infectious Disease and the Environment, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
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Humphrey CP, Iverson G, Hvastkovs E, Pradhan S. Occurrence and concentrations of traditional and emerging contaminants in onsite wastewater systems and water supply wells in eastern North Carolina, USA. J Water Health 2024; 22:550-564. [PMID: 38557570 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2024.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTSs) and private wells are commonly used in Eastern North Carolina, USA. Water from private wells is not required to be tested after the initial startup, and thus persons using these wells may experience negative health outcomes if their water is contaminated with waste-related pollutants including bacteria, nitrate or synthetic chemicals such as hexafluoropropylne oxide dimer acid and its ammonium salt (GenX). Water samples from 18 sites with OWTSs and groundwater wells were collected for nitrate, Escherichia coli (E. coli), total coliform, and GenX concentration analyses. Results showed that none of the 18 water supplies were positive for E. coli, nitrate concentrations were all below the maximum contaminant level of 10 mg L-1, and one well had 1 MPN 100 mL-1 of total coliform. However, GenX was detected in wastewater collected from all 18 septic tanks and 22% of the water supplies tested had concentrations that exceeded the health advisory levels for GenX. Water supplies with low concentrations of traditionally tested for pollutants (nitrate, E. coli) may still pose health risks due to elevated concentrations of emerging contaminants like GenX and thus more comprehensive and routine water testing is suggested for this and similar persistent compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles P Humphrey
- Department of Health Education and Promotion, East Carolina University, 200 Curry Ct, Greenville, NC 27858, USA E-mail:
| | - Guy Iverson
- Department of Health Education and Promotion, East Carolina University, 200 Curry Ct, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Eli Hvastkovs
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, 512 Science and Technology Bldg, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Sushama Pradhan
- NC Division of Public Health, Environmental Health Section, 5605 Six Forks Rd, 1632 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, NC 27699-1632, USA
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4
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Mooney S, Boudou M, O'Dwyer J, Hynds PD. Behavioral pathways to private well risk mitigation: A structural equation modeling approach. Risk Anal 2023; 43:1599-1626. [PMID: 36114612 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Complex, multihazard risks such as private groundwater contamination necessitate multiannual risk reduction actions including seasonal, weather-based hazard evaluations. In the Republic of Ireland (ROI), high rural reliance on unregulated private wells renders behavior promotion a vital instrument toward safeguarding household health from waterborne infection. However, to date, pathways between behavioral predictors remain unknown while latent constructs such as extreme weather event (EWE) risk perception and self-efficacy (perceived behavioral competency) have yet to be sufficiently explored. Accordingly, a nationwide survey of 560 Irish private well owners was conducted, with structural equation modeling (SEM) employed to identify underlying relationships determining key supply management behaviors. The pathway analysis (SEM) approach was used to model three binary outcomes: information seeking, post-EWE action, and well testing behavior. Upon development of optimal models, perceived self-efficacy emerged as a significant direct and/or indirect driver of all three behavior types-demonstrating the greatest indirect effect (β = -0.057) on adoption of post-EWE actions and greatest direct (β = 0.222) and total effect (β = 0.245) on supply testing. Perceived self-efficacy inversely influenced EWE risk perception in all three models but positively influenced supply awareness (where present). Notably, the presence of a vulnerable (infant and/or elderly) household member negatively influenced adoption of post-EWE actions (β = -0.131, p = 0.016). Results suggest that residential and age-related factors constitute key demographic variables influencing risk mitigation and are strongly mediated by cognitive variables-particularly self-efficacy. Study findings may help contextualize predictors of private water supply management, providing a basis for future risk-based water interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Mooney
- Environmental Sustainability & Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Martin Boudou
- Environmental Sustainability & Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jean O'Dwyer
- Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences (iCRAG), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Paul D Hynds
- Environmental Sustainability & Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences (iCRAG), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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5
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Bradley PM, Romanok KM, Smalling KL, Focazio MJ, Charboneau R, George CM, Navas-Acien A, O’Leary M, Red Cloud R, Zacher T, Breitmeyer SE, Cardon MC, Cuny CK, Ducheneaux G, Enright K, Evans N, Gray JL, Harvey DE, Hladik ML, Kanagy LK, Loftin KA, McCleskey RB, Medlock-Kakaley EK, Meppelink SM, Valder JF, Weis CP. Tapwater Exposures, Effects Potential, and Residential Risk Management in Northern Plains Nations. ACS ES T Water 2022; 2:1772-1788. [PMID: 36277121 PMCID: PMC9578051 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In the United States (US), private-supply tapwater (TW) is rarely monitored. This data gap undermines individual/community risk-management decision-making, leading to an increased probability of unrecognized contaminant exposures in rural and remote locations that rely on private wells. We assessed point-of-use (POU) TW in three northern plains Tribal Nations, where ongoing TW arsenic (As) interventions include expansion of small community water systems and POU adsorptive-media treatment for Strong Heart Water Study participants. Samples from 34 private-well and 22 public-supply sites were analyzed for 476 organics, 34 inorganics, and 3 in vitro bioactivities. 63 organics and 30 inorganics were detected. Arsenic, uranium (U), and lead (Pb) were detected in 54%, 43%, and 20% of samples, respectively. Concentrations equivalent to public-supply maximum contaminant level(s) (MCL) were exceeded only in untreated private-well samples (As 47%, U 3%). Precautionary health-based screening levels were exceeded frequently, due to inorganics in private supplies and chlorine-based disinfection byproducts in public supplies. The results indicate that simultaneous exposures to co-occurring TW contaminants are common, warranting consideration of expanded source, point-of-entry, or POU treatment(s). This study illustrates the importance of increased monitoring of private-well TW, employing a broad, environmentally informative analytical scope, to reduce the risks of unrecognized contaminant exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M. Bradley
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Columbia, South Carolina 29210, United States
| | | | - Kelly L. Smalling
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Lawrenceville, New Jersey 08648, United States
| | | | - Robert Charboneau
- Spirit
Lake Tribe Office of Environmental Health, Fort Totten, North Dakota 58335, United States
| | - Christine Marie George
- Johns
Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Ana Navas-Acien
- Columbia
University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Marcia O’Leary
- Missouri
Breaks Industries Research Inc., Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | - Reno Red Cloud
- Oglala
Sioux Tribe Natural Resources Regulatory Agency, Pine Ridge, South Dakota 57770, United States
| | - Tracy Zacher
- Missouri
Breaks Industries Research Inc., Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | | | - Mary C. Cardon
- U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Christa K. Cuny
- Missouri
Breaks Industries Research Inc., Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | - Guthrie Ducheneaux
- Missouri
Breaks Industries Research Inc., Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | - Kendra Enright
- Missouri
Breaks Industries Research Inc., Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | - Nicola Evans
- U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - James L. Gray
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado 80228-3742, United States
| | - David E. Harvey
- Indian Health Service/HHS, Rockville, Maryland 20857, United States
| | | | - Leslie K. Kanagy
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado 80228-3742, United States
| | - Keith A. Loftin
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kansas 66049, United States
| | | | | | | | - Joshua F. Valder
- U.S. Geological
Survey, Rapid City, South Dakota 57702, United States
| | - Christopher P. Weis
- National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences/NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United
States
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6
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Lee WC, Lee SW, Jeon JH, Lee JH, Jeong DH, Kim MS, Kim HK, Kim SO. Uranium Concentrations in Private Wells of Potable Groundwater, Korea. Toxics 2022; 10:543. [PMID: 36136508 PMCID: PMC9505193 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10090543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Uranium (U) is one of the typical naturally occurring radioactive elements enriched in groundwater through geological mechanisms, thereby bringing about adverse effects on human health. For this reason, some countries and the World Health Organization (WHO) regulate U with drinking water standards and monitor its status in groundwater. In Korea, there have been continuous investigations to monitor and manage U in groundwater, but they have targeted only public groundwater wells. However, the features of private wells differ from public ones, particularly in regard to the well's depth and diameter, affecting the U distribution in private wells. This study was initiated to investigate U concentrations in private groundwater wells for potable use, and the significant factors controlling them were also elucidated through statistical methods. The results obtained from the analyses of 7036 groundwater samples from private wells showed that the highest, average, and median values of U concentrations were 1450, 0.4, and 4.0 μg/L, respectively, and 2.1% of the wells had U concentrations exceeding the Korean and WHO standard (30 μg/L). In addition, the U concentrations were highest in areas of the Jurassic granite, followed by Quaternary alluvium and Precambrian metamorphic rocks. A more detailed investigation of the relationship between U concentration and geology revealed that the Jurassic porphyritic granite, mainly composed of Daebo granite, showed the highest U contents, which indicated that U might originate from uraninite (UO2) and coffinite (USiO4). Consequently, significant caution should be exercised when using the groundwater in these geological areas for potable use. The results of this study might be applied to establish relevant management plans to protect human health from the detrimental effect of U in groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo-Chun Lee
- HS Environmental Technology Research Center, Hosung Inc., Jinju 52818, Korea
| | - Sang-Woo Lee
- HS Environmental Technology Research Center, Hosung Inc., Jinju 52818, Korea
| | - Ji-Hoon Jeon
- Department of Geology and Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), Jinju 52828, Korea
| | - Jong-Hwan Lee
- Department of Geology and Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), Jinju 52828, Korea
| | - Do-Hwan Jeong
- Soil & Groundwater Research Division, Environmental Infrastructure Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), Incheon 22689, Korea
| | - Moon-Su Kim
- Soil & Groundwater Research Division, Environmental Infrastructure Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), Incheon 22689, Korea
| | - Hyun-Koo Kim
- Soil & Groundwater Research Division, Environmental Infrastructure Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), Incheon 22689, Korea
| | - Soon-Oh Kim
- Department of Geology and Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), Jinju 52828, Korea
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7
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MacDonald Gibson J, III FS, Wood E, Lockhart S, Bruine de Bruin W. Private Well Testing in Peri-Urban African-American Communities Lacking Access to Regulated Municipal Drinking Water: A Mental Models Approach to Risk Communication. Risk Anal 2022; 42:799-817. [PMID: 34342023 PMCID: PMC9292044 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Majority African-American neighborhoods on the edges of North Carolina municipalities are less likely than white peri-urban neighborhoods to be served by a community system regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. These households rely on unregulated private wells, which are at much higher risk of contamination than neighboring community water supplies. Yet, risk awareness of consuming well water is low, and no prior research has tested risk communication interventions for these communities. We present a randomized-controlled trial of an oversized postcard to promote water testing among this audience. The postcard design followed the mental models approach to risk communication. To our knowledge, this is the first U.S. randomized-controlled trial of a mailed communication to promote water testing in any audience and one of few trials of the mental models approach. We evaluated the postcard's effects on self-reported water testing with and without a free water test offer (vs. no-intervention control) via a survey mailed one month after the interventions. The combined communication and free test doubled the odds of self-reported water testing, compared to the control group (p = 0.046). It increased the odds of testing by 65%, compared to the free test alone. Recall of receiving a postcard about water testing increased the odds of self-reported testing twelve-fold (p < 0.001). Although these results suggest that targeted risk information delivered by mail can promote water testing when paired with a free test, the mechanism remains unclear. Additional research on beliefs influencing perceptions about well water may yield interventions that are even more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline MacDonald Gibson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational HealthSchool of Public Health, Indiana UniversityBloomingtonINUSA
| | | | | | | | - Wändi Bruine de Bruin
- Sol Price School of Public Policy and Department of PsychologyUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
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8
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Pieper KJ, Jones CN, Rhoads WJ, Rome M, Gholson DM, Katner A, Boellstorff DE, Beighley RE. Microbial Contamination of Drinking Water Supplied by Private Wells after Hurricane Harvey. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:8382-8392. [PMID: 34032415 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hurricane Hurricane Harvey made landfall on the Texas Gulf Coast on August 25, 2017, as a Category 4 hurricane and caused widespread flooding. We explored spatial and temporal distributions of well testing and contamination rates; relationships between contamination and system characteristics and recovery behaviors; and efficacy of mitigation strategies. We estimated that over 500 000 well users (∼130 000 to 260 000 wells) may have been affected, but only around 15 000 well users (∼3800 to 7500 wells) had inundated systems based on inundation maps. Local health departments and our team sampled 8822 wells in 44 counties in the 10 months that followed. Total coliform occurrence was 1.5 times and Escherichia coli was 2.8 times higher after Hurricane Harvey compared to baseline levels. Microbial contamination was more likely (1.7-2.5 times higher) when wells were inundated and/or residents felt their water was unsafe. Although more wells in urban counties were affected, E. coli rates were higher in wells in rural counties. Disinfection did not always eliminate contamination, highlighting concerns about the implementation and efficacy of chlorination procedures. Despite this extensive well testing conducted after Hurricane Harvey, we estimate that only 4.1% of potentially affected wells were tested, underscoring the magnitude of recovery assistance needed to assist well users after flooding events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey J Pieper
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - C Nathan Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35401, United States
| | - William J Rhoads
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Eawag-Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - McNamara Rome
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Drew M Gholson
- National Center for Alluvial Aquifer Research, Mississippi State University, Stoneville, Mississippi 38776, United States
| | - Adrienne Katner
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Diane E Boellstorff
- Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University System, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - R Edward Beighley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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9
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Holik D, Bezdan A, Marković M, Orkić Ž, Milostić-Srb A, Mikšić Š, Včev A. The Association between Drinking Water Quality and Inflammatory Bowel Disease-A Study in Eastern Croatia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17:E8495. [PMID: 33207850 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17228495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The incidence rate of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is becoming a global health problem that could be caused by changes in environmental and lifestyle habits. The study aimed to identify the association between the quality of drinking water, i.e., physiochemical and biological aspects of the phenotype and activity of IBD in Eastern Croatia. The study included 312 patients (63.4% ulcerative colitis, UC, and 36.6% Crohn's disease, CD) from the area of Eastern Croatia. The data were collected by questionnaires and the analysis of the water safety, based on 65 samples of drinking water by the patient's water supply method (public supply, rural water supply, and private well). IBD was active in 38.0% patients (34.0% CD and 40.0% UC). Significant differences (p = 0.001) were observed in the distribution of patients, according to counties in which they lived in. The largest deviation was noted in coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and enterococci bacteria, Fe, Al, and nitrate in rural water supply and private wells, although, without significant impact on IBD phenotype and activity. The hazard quotient (HQ) simulations showed that children are a sensitive group, regarding exposure to nitrates in drinking water over a long period of time, so there is a need for further monitoring and analysis of this issue.
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Abstract
Bordering the wealthy town of Apex, North Carolina, is a majority African-American neighborhood, Irongate Drive, without town water service, relying on private wells. Residents have long sought access to town water as their wells are running dry, but problems have not been systematically documented. Using a comprehensive survey and qualitative interviews, this study assesses the frequency of water shortages, uncovers the effects on daily lives, and reports on water source preferences. Surveys showed 80 percent of households experience water scarcity. Respondents reported not having enough water to flush toilets, shower, wash hands, or do laundry. Annual well maintenance costs averaged $1405; additional costs included dealing with water shortage and buying additional items to cope. More than 75 percent actively seek municipal water, and none oppose it. These results could inform assessments of impacts of water access disparities in similar peri-urban minority communities nationwide that remain excluded from nearby municipal services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney Lockhart
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Erica Wood
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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11
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Colley SK, Kane PK, MacDonald Gibson J. Risk Communication and Factors Influencing Private Well Testing Behavior: A Systematic Scoping Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16:E4333. [PMID: 31703259 PMCID: PMC6888409 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16224333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Unregulated private wells may be at risk for certain types of contamination associated with adverse health effects. Well water testing is a primary method to identify such risks, although testing rates are generally low. Risk communication is used as an intervention to promote private well testing behavior; however, little is known about whether these efforts are effective as well as the mechanisms that influence effectiveness. A systematic scoping review was conducted to evaluate the current evidence base for risk communication effectiveness and factors that influence well testing behavior. The review was conducted with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) framework. Data were synthesized using a health behavior model (Health Belief Model) to identify areas amenable to intervention and factors to consider when designing risk communication interventions. We identified a significant shortage of studies examining the effectiveness of risk communication interventions targeted to well testing behavior, with only two quasi-experimental studies identified. The review also identified seventeen studies that examined or described factors relating to well testing behavior. The two empirical studies suggest risk communication methods can be successful in motivating private well owners to test their water, while the remaining studies present considerations for developing effective, community-specific content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Colley
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| | - Peter K.M. Kane
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| | - Jacqueline MacDonald Gibson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA;
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Murray RT, Rosenberg Goldstein RE, Maring EF, Pee DG, Aspinwall K, Wilson SM, Sapkota AR. Prevalence of Microbiological and Chemical Contaminants in Private Drinking Water Wells in Maryland, USA. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15:ijerph15081686. [PMID: 30087312 PMCID: PMC6121425 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15081686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although many U.S. homes rely on private wells, few studies have investigated the quality of these water sources. This cross-sectional study evaluated private well water quality in Maryland, and explored possible environmental sources that could impact water quality. Well water samples (n = 118) were collected in four Maryland counties and were analyzed for microbiological and chemical contaminants. Data from the U.S. Census of Agriculture were used to evaluate associations between the presence of animal feeding operations and well water quality at the zip code level using logistic regression. Overall, 43.2% of tested wells did not meet at least one federal health-based drinking water standard. Total coliforms, fecal coliforms, enterococci, and Escherichia coli were detected in 25.4%, 15.3%, 5.1%, and 3.4% of tested wells, respectively. Approximately 26%, 3.4%, and <1% of wells did not meet standards for pH, nitrate-N, and total dissolved solids, respectively. There were no statistically significant associations between the presence of cattle, dairy, broiler, turkey, or aquaculture operations and the detection of fecal indicator bacteria in tested wells. In conclusion, nearly half of tested wells did not meet federal health-based drinking water standards, and additional research is needed to evaluate factors that impact well water quality. However, homeowner education on well water testing and well maintenance could be important for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rianna T Murray
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Rachel E Rosenberg Goldstein
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
- Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics, College of Agriculture & Natural Resources, University of Maryland, 2200 Symons Hall, 7998 Regents Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Elisabeth F Maring
- Department of Family Science, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Daphne G Pee
- University of Maryland Extension, University of Maryland, 2200 Symons Hall, 7998 Regents Drive , College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Karen Aspinwall
- University of Maryland Extension, University of Maryland, 2200 Symons Hall, 7998 Regents Drive , College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Sacoby M Wilson
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Amy R Sapkota
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
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Murphy HM, Thomas MK, Schmidt PJ, Medeiros DT, McFADYEN S, Pintar KD. Estimating the burden of acute gastrointestinal illness due to Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, E. coli O157 and norovirus associated with private wells and small water systems in Canada. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:1355-70. [PMID: 26564479 DOI: 10.1017/S0950268815002071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Waterborne illness related to the consumption of contaminated or inadequately treated water is a global public health concern. Although the magnitude of drinking water-related illnesses in developed countries is lower than that observed in developing regions of the world, drinking water is still responsible for a proportion of all cases of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) in Canada. The estimated burden of endemic AGI in Canada is 20·5 million cases annually – this estimate accounts for under-reporting and under-diagnosis. About 4 million of these cases are domestically acquired and foodborne, yet the proportion of waterborne cases is unknown. There is evidence that individuals served by private systems and small community systems may be more at risk of waterborne illness than those served by municipal drinking water systems in Canada. However, little is known regarding the contribution of these systems to the overall drinking water-related AGI burden in Canada. Private water supplies serve an estimated 12% of the Canadian population, or ~4·1 million people. An estimated 1·4 million (4·1%) people in Canada are served by small groundwater (2·6%) and surface water (1·5%) supplies. The objective of this research is to estimate the number of AGI cases attributable to water consumption from these supplies in Canada using a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) approach. This provides a framework for others to develop burden of waterborne illness estimates for small water supplies. A multi-pathogen QMRA of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, E. coli O157 and norovirus, chosen as index waterborne pathogens, for various source water and treatment combinations was performed. It is estimated that 103 230 AGI cases per year are due to the presence of these five pathogens in drinking water from private and small community water systems in Canada. In addition to providing a mechanism to assess the potential burden of AGI attributed to small systems and private well water in Canada, this research supports the use of QMRA as an effective source attribution tool when there is a lack of randomized controlled trial data to evaluate the public health risk of an exposure source. QMRA is also a powerful tool for identifying existing knowledge gaps on the national scale to inform future surveillance and research efforts.
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Hoffman K, Webster TF, Bartell SM, Weisskopf MG, Fletcher T, Vieira VM. Private drinking water wells as a source of exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in communities surrounding a fluoropolymer production facility. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119:92-7. [PMID: 20920951 PMCID: PMC3018506 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1002503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The C8 Health Project was established in 2005 to collect data on perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, or C8) and human health in Ohio and West Virginia communities contaminated by a fluoropolymer production facility. OBJECTIVE We assessed PFOA exposure via contaminated drinking water in a subset of C8 Health Project participants who drank water from private wells. METHODS Participants provided demographic information and residential, occupational, and medical histories. Laboratory analyses were conducted to determine serum-PFOA concentrations. PFOA data were collected from 2001 through 2005 from 62 private drinking water wells. We examined the relationship between drinking water and PFOA levels in serum using robust regression methods. As a comparison with regression models, we used a first-order, single-compartment pharmacokinetic model to estimate the serum:drinking-water concentration ratio at steady state. RESULTS The median serum PFOA concentration in 108 study participants who used private wells was 75.7 μg/L, approximately 20 times greater than the levels in the U.S. general population but similar to those of local residents who drank public water. Each 1 μg/L increase in PFOA levels in drinking water was associated with an increase in serum concentrations of 141.5 μg/L (95% confidence interval, 134.9-148.1). The serum:drinking-water concentration ratio for the steady-state pharmacokinetic model was 114. CONCLUSIONS PFOA-contaminated drinking water is a significant contributor to PFOA levels in serum in the study population. Regression methods and pharmacokinetic modeling produced similar estimates of the relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Hoffman
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Thomas F. Webster
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Scott M. Bartell
- Program in Public Health, University of California–Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Marc G. Weisskopf
- Department of Environmental Health, Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tony Fletcher
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Verónica M. Vieira
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Address correspondence to V.M. Vieira, 715 Albany St., Talbot 4W, Boston, MA 02118 USA. Telephone: (617) 638-4620. Fax: (617) 638-4857. E-mail:
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Magdo HS, Forman J, Graber N, Newman B, Klein K, Satlin L, Amler RW, Winston JA, Landrigan PJ. Grand rounds: nephrotoxicity in a young child exposed to uranium from contaminated well water. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115:1237-41. [PMID: 17687453 PMCID: PMC1940075 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2006] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Private wells that tap groundwater are largely exempt from federal drinking-water regulations, and in most states well water is not subject to much of the mandatory testing required of public water systems. Families that rely on private wells are thus at risk of exposure to a variety of unmeasured contaminants. CASE PRESENTATION A family of seven--two adults and five children--residing in rural northwestern Connecticut discovered elevated concentrations of uranium in their drinking water, with levels measured at 866 and 1,160 microg/L, values well above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level for uranium in public water supplies of 30 microg/L. The uranium was of natural origin, and the source of exposure was found to be a 500-foot well that tapped groundwater from the Brookfield Gneiss, a geologic formation known to contain uranium. Other nearby wells also had elevated uranium, arsenic, and radon levels, though concentrations varied widely. At least one 24-hr urine uranium level was elevated (> 1 microg/24 hr) in six of seven family members (range, 1.1-2.5 microg/24 hr). To assess possible renal injury, we measured urinary beta-2-microglobulin. Levels were elevated (> 120 microg/L) in five of seven family members, but after correction for creatine excretion, the beta-2-microglobulin excretion rate remained elevated (> 40 microg/mmol creatinine) only in the youngest child, a 3-year-old with a corrected level of 90 microg/mmol creatinine. Three months after cessation of well water consumption, this child's corrected beta-2-microglobulin level had fallen to 52 microg/mmol creatinine. SIGNIFICANCE This case underscores the hazards of consuming groundwater from private wells. It documents the potential for significant residential exposure to naturally occurring uranium in well water. It highlights the special sensitivity of young children to residential environmental exposures, a reflection of the large amount of time they spend in their homes, the developmental immaturity of their kidneys and other organ systems, and the large volume of water they consume relative to body mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Sonali Magdo
- Western University of Health Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Pomona, California, USA
| | - Joel Forman
- Department of Pediatrics and
- Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Nathan Graber
- Department of Pediatrics and
- Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Brooke Newman
- Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kathryn Klein
- Department of Pediatrics and
- Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Robert W. Amler
- School of Public Health, New York Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jonathan A. Winston
- Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Philip J. Landrigan
- Department of Pediatrics and
- Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Address correspondence to P.J. Landrigan, Department of Community and Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1057, New York, NY 10029 USA. Telephone: (212) 241-4804. Fax: (212) 996-0407. E-mail:
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Manassaram DM, Backer LC, Moll DM. A review of nitrates in drinking water: maternal exposure and adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114:320-7. [PMID: 16507452 PMCID: PMC1392223 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
In this review we present an update on maternal exposure to nitrates in drinking water in relation to possible adverse reproductive and developmental effects, and also discuss nitrates in drinking water in the United States. The current standard for nitrates in drinking water is based on retrospective studies and approximates a level that protects infants from methemoglobinemia, but no safety factor is built into the standard. The current standard applies only to public water systems. Drinking water source was related to nitrate exposure (i.e., private systems water was more likely than community system water to have nitrate levels above the maximum contaminant limit). Animal studies have found adverse reproductive effects resulting from higher doses of nitrate or nitrite. The epidemiologic evidence of a direct exposure-response relationship between drinking water nitrate level and adverse reproductive effect is still not clear. However, some reports have suggested an association between exposure to nitrates in drinking water and spontaneous abortions, intrauterine growth restriction, and various birth defects. Uncertainties in epidemiologic studies include the lack of individual exposure assessment that would rule out confounding of the exposure with some other cause. Nitrates may be just one of the contaminants in drinking water contributing to adverse outcomes. We conclude that the current literature does not provide sufficient evidence of a causal relationship between exposure to nitrates in drinking water and adverse reproductive effects. Future studies incorporating individual exposure assessment about users of private wells--the population most at risk--should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deana M Manassaram
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Health Studies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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