Effect of antihistamine up-dosing in chronic urticaria

Chronic urticaria has an important impact upon patient quality of life, and no treatment has yet been developed capable of effectively controlling the disease. The most recent guidelines recommend the use of non-sedating antihistamines at high doses as second-step therapy before resorting to other treatments. The present review examines the studies published to date on the use of H1 antihistamines at doses higher than those indicated as therapeutic doses in chronic urticaria. Most of the studies report no significant differences among the studied doses-only a tendency towards increased response on elevating the dose. There are no clinically well designed, randomized double-blind trials comparing efficacy between therapeutic doses and doses higher than those indicated in the corresponding Summary of Product Characteristics. Likewise, there are insufficient data to conduct a meta-analysis and thus classify the degree of evidence of the few available studies, which moreover present contradictory results. At present, the prescription of high-dose H1 antihistamines is based only on experts opinion. However, considering the high safety profile of these drugs, it would be a good option to evaluate their efficacy at high doses, before moving on to other therapeutic steps.

Effect of bilastine upon the ocular symptoms of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis

Ocular symptoms often accompany allergic rhinitis and can be as or even more bothersome for the patient than the actual nasal symptoms. Ocular manifestations of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis may result from both direct allergen-mediated mast cell stimulation on the surface of the eye and naso-ocular reflexes--histamine being one of the mediators of symptoms onset. An H1 antihistamine would be the first line treatment for allergic conjunctivitis. Since allergic conjunctivitis is always (or almost always) accompanied by nasal symptoms, a second-generation H1 antihistamine administered via oral route is the drug of choice for jointly managing both the nasal and the ocular symptoms--minimizing the impact of the effects inherent to first-generation H, antihistamine, including particularly drowsiness. Bilastine is a new H1 antihistamine with an excellent safety profile, developed for the treatment of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and urticaria, with potency similar to that of cetirizine and desloratadine, and superior to that of fexofenadine. This new drug has been shown to be effective in controlling the ocular symptoms of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis.

Bilastine and the central nervous system

Antihistamines have been classifed as first or second generation drugs, according to their pharmacokinetic properties, chemical structure and adverse effects. The adverse effects of antihistamines upon the central nervous system (CNS) depend upon their capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and bind to the central H1 receptors (RH1). This in turn depends on the lipophilicity of the drug molecule, its molecular weight (MW), and affinity for P-glycoprotein (P-gp) (CNS xenobiotic substances extractor protein). First generation antihistamines show scant affinity for P-gp, unlike the second generation molecules which are regarded as P-gp substrates. Histamine in the brain is implicated in many functions (waking-sleep cycle, attention, memory and learning, and the regulation of appetite), with numerous and complex interactions with different types of receptors in different brain areas. Bilastine is a new H1 antihistamine that proves to be effective in treating allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (seasonal and perennial) and urticaria. The imaging studies made, as well as the objective psychomotor tests and subjective assessment of drowsiness, indicate the absence of bilastine action upon the CNS. This fact, and the lack of interaction with benzodiazepines and alcohol, define bilastine as a clinically promising drug with a good safety profile as regards adverse effects upon the CNS.

Rupatadine improves nasal symptoms, quality of life (ESPRINT-15) and severity in a subanalysis of a cohort of Spanish allergic rhinitis patients

BACKGROUND

According to current guidelines, new second-generation oral Hi-antihistamines, as well as intranasal corticosteroids (ICSs), are recommended for the treatment of allergic rhinitis (AR) in adults and children.

OBJECTIVE

To assess changes in AR severity, in addition to nasal symptoms and health-related quality of life (HRQoL), after 4 weeks of treatment with rupatadine in a cohort of AR patients.

METHODS

A subanalysis of a longitudinal, observational, prospective, multicenter Spanish study was carried out in spring-summer 2007. Enrolled patients had a clinical diagnosis of AR of at least 2 years' evolution, a total nasal symptom score (TNSS) of at least 5, and had not received antihistamines in the previous week or ICSs in the previous 2 weeks. HRQoL (ESPRINT-15 questionnaire), disease severity (using both the original and modified Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma [ARIA] classifications), and nasal symptoms (TNSS) were measured at baseline and after 4 weeks of rupatadine treatment.

RESULTS

Data from a cohort of 360 patients treated with rupatadine were analyzed (57.2% women, 42.5% with intermittent AR, 36.4% with asthma, and 61.7% with conjunctivitis). After 4 weeks of treatment, the patients showed a significantly lower mean (SD) TNSS (8.2 [1.9] vs 3.1 [2.1], P < .001), a significant improvement in HRQoL (3.0 [1.2] vs 1.0 [0.9], P < .001) and significantly reduced AR severity (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to an improvement in nasal symptoms and HRQoL, rupatadine reduced AR severity after 4 weeks of treatment.

Cupressus arizonica pollen: a new pollen involved in the lipid transfer protein syndrome?

BACKGROUND

Lipid transfer proteins (LTP) are responsible for systemic manifestations in food allergy. Their relationship with pollinosis is not clear. In our area, many patients allergic to multiple LTP-containing foods present pollinosis due to Cupressus arizonica.

METHODS

We selected 6 patients with cypress pollinosis and food allergy to peach. Skin prick tests (SPT) were performed for pollens (grass, cypress, wall pellitory, plane tree, and olive tree) and plant foods (hazelnut, kiwifruit, peach peel, maize, wheat, peanut, lettuce, apple, mustard, and melon). In vitro assays included specific immunoglobulin (Ig) E to C arizonica and peach LTP (Pru p 3), enzyme allergosorbent test (EAST) inhibition, immunoblotting, immunoblotting-inhibition, and immunocytochemical techniques for the detection of Pru p 3-like LTP in cypress pollen grains.

RESULTS

SPT were positive for C arizonica, peach, lettuce, mustard, and hazelnut in all patients. Specific IgE to C arizonica and Pru p 3 was positive in all but 1 patient, whose Pru p 3 IgE was negative. Immunoblotting under nonreducing conditions with C arizonica extract and patients' sera showed a band at 14-15 kDa that was inhibited by Pru p 3. Pru p 3 partially inhibited the C arizonica pollen extract in EAST-inhibition. Pru p 3-like LTP was localized in the cytoplasm and walls of C arizonica pollen grains.

CONCLUSION

A 15-kDa allergen in C arizonica pollen was found in a group of patients presenting peach allergy and respiratory symptoms to cypress. In vitro tests and immunocytochemical techniques indicate that this protein is an LTP.

Effect of bilastine upon nasal obstruction

H1 antihistamines constitute one of the main references for the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Classically, these drugs have been considered effective in controlling sneezing, rhinorrhea and itching, though they have not been regarded as particularly effective in application to nasal obstruction. The most recent studies, involving second-generation H1 antihistamines (desloratadine, fexofenadine, levocetirizine, rupatadine), have shown these drugs to offer effects upon nasal obstruction significantly superior to those of placebo. The present review examines the effect of bilastine, a new, potent and highly specific H1 antihistamine without sedative effects or cardiac toxicity, upon nasal obstruction. The analysis of the data from the different clinical trials indicates that in patients with allergic rhinitis, the effect of bilastine upon nasal obstruction is superior to that of placebo and similar to that of other second-generation H1 antihistamines, manifesting within 24 hours after the start of treatment.

Placebo effect in clinical trials involving patients with allergic rhinitis

Interest in understanding the underlying mechanisms of the placebo effect has considerably grown during the last few decades. Studies made in this sense have led to a change in the conception of this peculiar phenomenon, and nowadays the placebo effect is viewed as a psychobiological event resulting from the interaction between individual patient factors and factors relating to the physician and the therapeutic environment. Investigation of the placebo effect in disease conditions such as pain or Parkinson's disease has improved our understanding of its underlying psychological and neurobiological mechanisms. Clinical studies directly designed to investigate the placebo effect have shown placebo to have a more beneficial effect upon diseases evaluated by means of physical or subjective parameters than by means of biochemical parameters. A strong placebo effect has been observed in allergic diseases, where the evaluating parameters tend to be physical or subjective. Biomedical research and the development of new drugs implies an important investment of human and economical resources for conducting clinical trials designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of new medications. Knowledge of the mechanisms of the placebo effect and how the latter can influence the results of the different efficacy variables in these research studies appears essential in order to optimize the available resources in application to the development of new drugs.

Bilastine and quality of life

The evaluation of quality of life (QoL) and its modification through therapeutic interventions has become a prioritary concern in recent years and a requirement on the part of regulatory agencies for the authorization of new drugs. In clinical studies of allergic disorders, particularly allergic rhinitis and urticaria, different types of generic questionnaires have been used - especially disease specific instruments such as the Rhinoconjunctivitis Quality of Life Questionnaire (RQLQ) or skin disease specific tools such as the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI). Throughout its clinical development, bilastine has been shown to be more effective than placebo and at least as effective as cetirizine, levocetirizine, fexofenadine or desloratadine in controlling the symptoms of seasonal allergic rhinitis and chronic urticaria. QoL has been studied as a secondary objective in three allergic rhinitis clinical trials, using the RQLQ, in a total of 2335 patients. Likewise, in chronic urticaria, QoL has been evaluated using the DLQI in a total of 525 patients, versus levocetirizine and placebo. The improvement in the QoL parameters in these studies (RQLQ or DLQI domains) at all times proved proportional to the symptoms improvement. In general, the data obtained relating to changes in QoL are concordant with the mean global visual analog scale (VAS in mm) values and their changes, from the beginning until the end of the treatment period, for all of the trials, for bilastine and all its comparators.

Accuracy of acoustic rhinometry versus computed tomography in the evaluation of nasal cavity in patients with nasal polyposis

BACKGROUND

Acoustic rhinometry (AR) accuracy in the diagnosis and follow-up of nasal polyps is as yet unclear. Our objective was to study its accuracy compared with computed tomography (CT) in patients with nasal polyps.

METHODS

We studied 29 patients diagnosed of nasal polyposis by nasal endoscopy. In all patients sinunasal CT-scan, AR and nasal nitric oxide (NO) were assessed. Nasal volumes between 0 and 5 (V(0-5)) and 5 and 9 (V(5-9)) centimetres from nasal inlet were measured with AR and CT-scan, by using Pearson and intraclass correlation coefficient tests.

RESULTS

All patients (29,79% males, mean age 48.2 yr [range 34-61]) had nasal polyps (score 2-3 on Lildholdt classification, score 0-3). Measurements (right plus left sides) were: AR 8.9 +/- 0.8 cm(3) (V(0-5)) and 15.5 +/- 3.6 cm(3)(V(5-9)); CT 6.5 +/- 0.4 cm(3) (V(0-5)) and 6.3 +/- 0.8 cm(3) (V(5-9)). Pearson correlation was r = 0.67 (p < 0.01) for V(0-5) and r = 0.62 (p < 0.05) for V(5-9). Intraclass correlation coefficient test was 0.51 (V(0-5)) and 0.28 (V(5-9)) for consistency; and 0.43 (V(0-5)) and 0.23 (V(5-9)) for absolute agreement. Low levels of NO (312.3 +/- 43.8 ppb) were found and the correlation between NO levels and volumes (V(0-5) or V(0-9)) measured by AR was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to CT-scan, AR measurements accurately reflect the geometry of nasal cavity volumes in patients with nasal polyps, with a better assessment in the anterior part of the nasal cavity.

United airways again: high prevalence of rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps in bronchiectasis

BACKGROUND

Although various relationships between the lower and upper airways have been found, the association of bronchiectasis with chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps has not been thoroughly evaluated. This study was undertaken to examine the association of idiopathic and postinfective bronchiectasis with chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyposis.

METHODS

In a prospective study, 56 patients with idiopathic and 32 with postinfective bronchiectasis were evaluated for chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyposis by using EP(3)OS criteria and assessing: symptoms score, nasal endoscopy, sinonasal and chest CT scan, nasal and lung function and nasal and exhaled NO.

RESULTS

Most bronchiectasis patients (77%) satisfied the EP(3)OS criteria for chronic rhinosinusitis, with anterior (98.5%) and posterior (91%) rhinorrhea and nasal congestion (90%) being the major symptoms. Patients presented maxillary, ethmoidal and ostiomeatal complex occupancy with a total CT score of 8.4 +/- 0.4 (0-24). Using endoscopy, nasal polyps with a moderate score of 1.6 +/- 0.1 (0-3) were found in 25% of patients. Nasal NO was significantly lower in patients with nasal polyposis (347 +/- 62 ppb) than in those without them (683 +/- 76 ppb; P < 0.001), and inversely correlated (R = -0.36; P < 0.01) with the ostiomeatal complex occupancy. In the chest CT scan, patients with chronic rhinosinusitis showed a higher bronchiectasis severity score (7.2 +/- 0.5; P < 0.001) than patients without (3.7 +/- 0.7). The prevalence of chronic rhinosinusitis, nasal polyps and other outcomes were similar in idiopathic and postinfective bronchiectasis.

CONCLUSIONS

The frequent association of chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyposis with idiopathic and postinfective BQ supports the united airways concept, and it suggests that the two type of bronchiectasis share common etiopathogenic mechanisms.

From pollinosis to digestive allergy

Pollinosis is defined as the appearance of respiratory symptoms (rhinoconjunctivitis and/or asthma) as a result of the inhalation of pollen to which the individual is sensitized. Pollen allergy becomes all the more relevant on taking into account that it may be responsible for the development of plant food allergy, or may even constitute the direct cause of esophageal, gastric and/or intestinal inflammation in the context of a digestive allergic process. Pollen can act as a source of allergens that induce primary sensitization in the host as a result of inhalation, with secondary allergy to plant foods containing shared allergens via a cross-reactivity mechanism. The observed pattern of plant food allergy depends on the dietary habits of the population in a given geographical setting, and on the pollination found in that setting. Pollinosis may account for the greater or lesser prevalence of allergy to certain plant foods, and for the severity of the associated reactions. Beyond the digestive tract inflammation that may result from allergy to a given food, pollinosis is also intrinsically able to generate a clinically relevant or irrelevant Th2-mediated inflammatory response at digestive level, and may even give rise to eosinophilic esophagitis. Inter-relation with the airway may also extend to the digestive tract as a consequence of the systemic response that characterizes allergic disease.

Allergic rhinitis and school performance

Allergic rhinitis is presently the most common chronic disorder in the pediatric population. It can affect sleep at night and cause daytime sleepiness, with school absenteeism, "presenteeism" or inattention, mood disturbances and psychosocial problems. All this in turn can contribute to reduce school performance. The correct treatment of allergic rhinitis can improve school performance, though the first generation antihistamines have unacceptable central and anticholinergic effects that can actually worsen the situation. The second generation antihistamines constitute the drug treatment of choice for allergic rhinitis in children. Vasoconstrictors should not be used in pediatric patients, due to their unpredictable pharmacokinetics and very narrow therapeutic margin. Intranasal corticoids could improve school performance in some patients, by reducing nose block or congestion, the nocturnal sleep disturbances, and daytime sleepiness. Concrete studies of the impact of chromones, anticholinergic agents, antileukotrienes and immunotherapy upon school performance are lacking.

Genetic aspects of allergic rhinitis

The development of allergic rhinitis entails a complex interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental exposure to different factors, of which the most important is the implicated allergen. There is a clear hereditary component in allergic rhinitis that has been well corroborated by segregation studies and investigations in twins. From the strictly genetic perspective, it is believed that the disease may be the result of the interaction of different genetic alterations, each of which would contribute a small defect. In recent years, considerable attention has focused on the genes that may be implicated in allergic rhinitis. A number of genomic searches have been made, yielding different chromosomal associations--the most repeated being those involving chromosomes 2, 3, 4 and 9. Single-nucleotide polymorphism studies involving genes encoding for molecules implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis have also been made. Such molecules comprise chemokines and their receptors, interleukins and their receptors, eosinophil peroxidase and leukotrienes, among others.

Molecular diagnosis in allergology: application of the microarray technique

Recombinant and purified allergens are currently available for determining specific IgE targeted to different allergenic components. In this way it is possible to diagnose the sensitization profile of each individual patient. The microarray technique makes it possible to determine specific IgE against multiple allergens simultaneously in one same patient, with a minimum amount of serum, and even allows the determination of IgG and IgM against the same allergens in one same serum sample. Microarray procedures are being developed not only for the determination of antibodies but also for cell activation tests. In addition, microarray technology will help explain cross-reactions, and will facilitate the evaluation of subjects in which skin tests cannot be performed. These techniques will allow a great step forward in the development of immunotherapy specifically targeted to the sensitizations found in each individual patient, yielding especially hypoallergenic forms of great immunogenic capacity, and thus improving the safety and efficacy of immunotherapy. Lastly, microarrays will improve our understanding of the physiopathology of allergic diseases.

Stress and allergy

In recent years it has been seen that the nervous and immune systems regulate each other reciprocally, thus giving rise to a new field of study known as psychoneuroimmunology. Stress is defined as a general body response to initially threatening external or internal demands, involving the mobilization of physiological and psychological resources to deal with them. In other words, stress is characterized by an imbalance between body demands and the capacity of the body to cope with them. The persistence of such a situation gives rise to chronic stress, which is the subject of the present study, considering its repercussions upon different organs and systems, with special emphasis on the immune system and--within the latter--upon the implications in relation to allergic disease. Activation of the neuroendocrine and sympathetic systems through catecholamine and cortisol secretion exerts an influence upon the immune system, modifying the balance between Th1/Th2 response in favor of Th2 action. It is not possible to affirm that chronic stress is intrinsically able to cause allergy, though the evidence of different studies suggests than in genetically susceptible individuals, such stress may favor the appearance of allergic disease on one hand, and complicate the control of existing allergy on the other.

Allergic conjunctivitis and H1 antihistamines

Allergic conjunctivitis is the most common form of ophthalmological allergy. Eye symptoms are one of the main and most frequent reasons for consultation among patients with allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, which in turn is the most common reason for visiting the allergologist, according to the Alergológica 2005 study. Itching is the key symptom of allergic conjunctivitis, and its relief is the principal objective of the broad range of treatment options available. Topical antihistamines with multiple actions (mast cell stabilization, and antiinflammatory and antihistaminic actions) are probably the best treatment option, thanks to their rapid action, safety and convenience of use. However, oral antihistamines (preferentially second generation drugs) can also play an important role, since they are of established efficacy and offer adequate treatment of the nasal symptoms that tend to accompany the ocular manifestations of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis. Models of allergic conjunctivitis are useful for investigational purposes and for advancing our knowledge of allergic reactions. Advances in the study of the physiopathology of ocular allergy allow us to introduce new therapeutic options for the management of such allergic reactions, thanks to the findings derived from models of this kind. The present review provides an update to the published data on allergic conjunctivitis and the current role of both topical and ocular antihistamines in treating the disorder.

Chronic urticaria: do urticaria nonexperts implement treatment guidelines? A survey of adherence to published guidelines by nonexperts

BACKGROUND

Guidelines including level of evidence and grade of recommendation were recently published for chronic urticaria (CU).

OBJECTIVES

To describe the therapeutic approach in patients with CU, and to depict how recent guidelines are implemented in the daily practice of management of CU.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional multicentre study through a questionnaire answered by 139 specialists. In total, 695 patients were evaluated, mean+/-SD age 42.3+/-15 years, 62.1% women. Of the patients, 168 were treated by an allergist, 473 by a dermatologist and in 54 cases the specialist was not stated. The drug prescribed was the main variable, and chi2 and Fisher's tests were utilized for the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Nonsedating anti-H1 antihistamines taken regularly were the most common drugs prescribed, followed by nonsedating anti-H1 antihistamines taken as needed, corticosteroids, sedating antihistamines taken regularly, sedating antihistamines taken as needed, anti-H2 antihistamines, leukotriene antagonists, ciclosporin and doxepin. Nonsedating antihistamines plus corticosteroids was the most frequent drug combination prescribed. When comparing between allergists and dermatologists we found a positive and significant correlation only between prescription of cetirizine, dexchlorfeniramine, leukotriene antagonists and anti-H2 antihistamines and being treated by an allergist. A positive correlation was found with desloratadine and being seen by a dermatologist. We did not find any difference in CU management in the rest of the treatments studied.

CONCLUSIONS

It is surprising that a large amount of sedating antihistamines was prescribed. In many instances these were prescribed as needed. This fact could have a negative impact on urticaria control and patient satisfaction. It seems difficult for the nonexpert to differentiate between CU and any kind of physical urticaria.

Oestrogen-dependent hereditary angio-oedema with normal C1 inhibitor: description of six new cases and review of pathogenic mechanisms and treatment

BACKGROUND

Hereditary angio-oedema (HAE) is a rare condition in which there is a deficiency in the quantity or activity of C1 inhibitor (C1INH). Recently, an additional type of HAE with no alterations in the levels or the function of C1INH has been reported. It is defined as HAE with normal C1INH, and named type III HAE or oestrogen-dependent HAE. The aim of this study is to describe the clinical and laboratory findings of six new cases of type III HAE and to review the literature about this disease.

METHODS

A short description of six women with recurrent angio-oedema is provided. The characteristics of the patients are compared with the previously reported case series in a literature-based review.

RESULTS

The mean age of the patients at onset was 22 years (range 16-30). All of them had angio-oedema attacks during oestrogen-based contraceptive treatment and four reported episodes during pregnancy. Four patients reported a positive past family history. Two of them had experienced episodes of laryngeal oedema. None of the patients responded to corticoids or antihistamines during the attacks. Levels and functional activity of C1INH were within the normal range in all cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical and laboratory findings mirror the observations of previous reports of oestrogen-dependent angio-oedema with normal C1INH. This is the first published series of type III HAE in Spain.

Adaptation and validation of the Spanish version of the Chronic Urticaria Quality of Life Questionnaire (CU-Q2oL)

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to develop a Spanish version of the Chronic Urticaria Quality of Life Questionnaire (CU-Q2oL) and to test its acceptability, reliability, validity, and sensitivity to change.

METHODS

Forward and back translation by bilingual translators followed by pilot testing in patients with urticaria was used to adapt the questionnaire. The Spanish version of the CU-Q2oL was self-administered alongside the Skindex-29 in an observational, longitudinal, multicenter study. Feasibility was assessed by analyzing missing responses and ceiling and floor effects. Reliability was tested by examining internal consistency (Cronbach alpha). Construct validity was analyzed by examining convergent and discriminant validity with the Skindex-29 and by evaluating the ability of the CU-Q2oL to discriminate between patients according to a clinical classification of severity. Sensitivity to change was analyzed in a subgroup of patients who completed a second visit 4 weeks after baseline.

RESULTS

A total of 695 patients were included in the analysis. Mean (SD) age was 42.4 (15.0) years and 62.1% of the sample was female. All of the items on the CU-Q2oL were answered by 91.9% of the sample. Over 15% of patients scored at the floor (best possible health) on 5 of the 6 dimensions. Cronbach alpha coefficients were > 0.80 for all dimensions of the CU-Q2oL, and 0.86 for the overall score. Construct validity was supported by correlations between the CU-Q2oL and the Skindex-29, which generally fulfilled hypotheses, and by the questionnaire's ability to discriminate between groups with different severities of urticaria.The questionnaire was sensitive to change, with an effect size of 1.0 for the overall score in patients reporting an improvement on the health transition scale.

CONCLUSIONS

The Spanish version of the CU-Q2oL has shown satisfactory reliability, validity, and sensitivity to change. It is suitable for use as an outcome measure for chronic urticaria patients in clinical and research settings.

Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma update (ARIA 2008). The perspective from Spain

Allergic rhinitis is a global health problem. Over 600 million patients suffer from this disease worldwide. ARIA (Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma), an evidence-based document, was produced and published in 2001 using an extensive review of the available literature. The ARIA 2008 update was recently published and covers tertiary prevention of allergy, pharmacologic treatments, and immunotherapy. Nonallergic rhinitis is still a controversial area and may pose some treatment problems. Another important aspect of the ARIA update is the comorbidity of allergic rhinitis, in particular, asthma. The recommendations of the 2008 ARIA Update, as in 2001, are that patients with allergic rhinitis, particularly if persistent, should be evaluated for asthma, patients with asthma should be evaluated for rhinitis, and an effective and safe combination strategy should be used to treat diseases of the upper and lower airways. Over the last few years, severa studies performed in Spain report new data on the prevalence of allergic rhinitis sensitivity to common aeroallergens, comorbidity of allergic rhinitis and asthma, and impact on quality of life. The studies reviewed in this manuscript confirm--as do those from other developed countries--the enormous impact of the disease on society and health care in Spain.