Systematic reviews of wound care management: (3) antimicrobial agents for chronic wounds; (4) diabetic foot ulceration

BACKGROUND

Chronic wounds, including pressure sores, leg ulcers, diabetic foot ulcers and other kinds of wounds, healing by secondary intention are common in both acute and community settings. The prevention and treatment of chronic wounds includes many strategies, including the use of various wound dressings, bandages, antimicrobial agents, footwear, physical therapies and educational strategies. This review is one of a series of reviews, and focuses on the prevention and treatment of diabetic foot ulcers and the role of antimicrobial agents in chronic wounds in general.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the clinical- and cost-effectiveness of (1) prevention and treatment strategies for diabetic foot ulcers and (2) systemic and topical antimicrobial agents in the prevention and healing of chronic wounds. METHODS - DATA SOURCES: Nineteen electronic databases were searched, including MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase and the Cochrane Library. Relevant journals, conference proceedings and bibliographies of retrieved papers were hand-searched. An expert panel was consulted.

METHODS - STUDY SELECTION

Randomised and non-randomised trials with a concurrent control group, which evaluated any intervention for the prevention or treatment of diabetic foot ulcers, or systemic or topical antimicrobials for chronic wounds (diabetic foot ulcers, pressure ulcers, leg ulcers of various aetiologies, pilonidal sinuses, non-healing surgical wounds, and cavity wounds) and used objective measures of outcome such as: (1) development or resolution of callus; (2) incidence of ulceration (for diabetic foot ulcer prevention studies); (3) incidence of pressure sores (pressure sore prevention studies); (4) any objective measure of wound healing (frequency of complete healing, change in wound size, time to healing, rate of healing); (5) ulcer recurrence rates; (6) side-effects; (7) amputation rates (diabetic foot ulcer treatment studies); (8) healing rates and recurrence of disease, among others, for pilonidal sinuses. Studies reporting solely microbiological outcomes were excluded. Decisions on the inclusion of primary studies were made independently by two reviewers. Disagreements were resolved through discussion. Data were extracted by one reviewer into structured summary tables. Data extraction was checked independently by a second reviewer and discrepancies resolved by discussion. All included studies were assessed against a comprehensive checklist for methodological quality. INCLUDED STUDIES - DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS: Thirty-nine trials which evaluated various prevention and treatment modalities for diabetic foot ulcers: footwear (2), hosiery (1), education (5), screening and foot protection programme (1); podiatry (1) for the prevention of diabetic foot ulcers; and footwear (1), skin replacement (2), hyperbaric oxygen (2), ketanserin (3), prostaglandins (3), growth factors (5), dressings and topical applications (9), debridement (2) and antibiotics (2) for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers. INCLUDED STUDIES - ANTIMICROBIALS: Thirty studies were included, 25 with a randomised design. There were nine evaluations of systemic antimicrobials and 21 of topical agents.

QUALITY OF STUDIES

The methodological and reporting quality was generally poor. Commonly encountered problems of reporting included lack of clarity about randomisation and outcome measurement procedures, and lack of baseline descriptive data. Common methodological weaknesses included: lack of blinded outcome assessment and lack of adjustment for baseline differences in important variables such as wound size; large loss to follow-up; and no intention-to-treat analysis. RESULTS - PREVENTION OF DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS: There is some evidence (1 large trial) that a screening and foot protection programme reduces the rate of major amputations. The evidence for special footwear (2 small trials) and educational programmes (5 trials) is equivocal. A single trial of podiatric care reported a significantly greater reduction in callus in patients receiving podiatric care. RESULTS - TREATMENT OF DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS: Total contact casting healed significantly more ulcers than did standard treatment in one study. There is evidence from 5 trials of topical growth factors to suggest that these, particularly platelet-derived growth factor, may increase the healing rate of diabetic foot ulcers. Although these studies were of relatively good quality, the sample sizes were far too small to make any definitive conclusions, and growth factors should be compared with current standard treatments in large, multicentre studies. Topical ketanserin increased ulcer healing rate in 2 studies, while systemic hyperbaric oxygen therapy reduced the rate of major amputations in 1 study. Preliminary research into the effects of iloprost and prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) on diabetic foot ulcer healing suggests possible benefits. However, good quality, large-scale confirmatory research is needed. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Pressure ulcer prevention and treatment. A synopsis of the current evidence from research

Foam alternatives to the standard hospital foam mattress can reduce the incidence of pressure ulcers in people at risk. The relative merits of AP and CLP devices and of the different AP devices for pressure ulcer prevention are unclear. There is some evidence from one study to suggest that LAL beds may reduce the incidence of pressure ulcers compared with standard intensive care beds. There is insufficient evidence to make conclusions on the value of various CLP devices and sheepskins as pressure ulcer prevention strategies, although Australian Medical Sheepskin was an effective preventive strategy in a recent study. There is evidence from two trials that air-fluidized therapy may improve pressure ulcer healing rates. There is insufficient evidence to make conclusions on the value of other beds and mattresses as pressure ulcer treatments. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any particular wound dressing or debridement technique. Research about pressure ulcer prevention and treatment is generally conducted on a small scale and is of poor quality; few economic evaluations have been undertaken of pressure area care strategies. Only when a clinically relevant research agenda has been developed and appropriate research methods have been used in sufficiently large studies can evidence-based pressure ulcer prevention and treatment be a possibility. Until then, nurses and other health care professionals can only rely on what little research evidence exists together with their professional judgment to make decisions in this field.

Research information in nurses' clinical decision-making: what is useful?

AIM

To examine those sources of information which nurses find useful for reducing the uncertainty associated with their clinical decisions.

BACKGROUND

Nursing research has concentrated almost exclusively on the concept of research implementation. Few, if any, papers examine the use of research knowledge in the context of clinical decision-making. There is a need to establish how useful nurses perceive information sources are, for reducing the uncertainties they face when making clinical decisions.

DESIGN

Cross-case analysis involving qualitative interviews, observation, documentary audit and Q methodological modelling of shared subjectivities amongst nurses. The case sites were three large acute hospitals in the north of England, United Kingdom. One hundred and eight nurses were interviewed, 61 of whom were also observed for a total of 180 hours and 122 nurses were involved in the Q modelling exercise.

RESULTS

Text-based and electronic sources of research-based information yielded only small amounts of utility for practising clinicians. Despite isolating four significantly different perspectives on what sources were useful for clinical decision-making, it was human sources of information for practice that were overwhelmingly perceived as the most useful in reducing the clinical uncertainties of nurse decision-makers.

CONCLUSIONS

It is not research knowledge per se that carries little weight in the clinical decisions of nurses, but rather the medium through which it is delivered. Specifically, text-based and electronic resources are not viewed as useful by nurses engaged in making decisions in real time, in real practice, but those individuals who represent a trusted and clinically credible source are. More research needs to be carried out on the qualities of people regarded as clinically important information agents (specifically, those in clinical nurse specialist and associated roles) whose messages for practice appear so useful for clinicians.

Resources to enhance evidence-based nursing practice

Evidence-based practice means integrating the best available research evidence with information about patient preferences, clinician skill level, and available resources to make decisions about patient care. Barriers to the use of research-based evidence occur when time, access to journal articles, search skills, critical appraisal skills, and understanding of the language used in research are lacking. Resources are available to overcome these barriers and support an evidence-based nursing practice. This article highlights available resources and describes strategies that nurses can use to develop and sustain an evidence-based nursing practice.

The accessibility of research-based knowledge for nurses in United Kingdom acute care settings

BACKGROUND

The successful dissemination of the results of the National Health Service (NHS) research and development strategy and the development of evidence based approaches to health care rely on clinicians having access to the best available evidence; evidence fit for the purpose of reducing the uncertainties associated with clinical decisions.

AIM

To reveal the accessibility of those sources of information actually used by nurses, as well as those which they say they use.

DESIGN

Mixed method case site, using interview, observational, Q sort and documentary audit data in medical, surgical and coronary care units (CCUs) in three acute hospitals.

RESULTS

Three perspectives on accessibility were identified: (a) the humanist--in which human sources of information were the most accessible; (b) local information for local needs--in which locally produced resources were seen as the most accessible and (c) moving towards technology--in which information technology begins to be seen as accessible. Nurses' experience in a clinical specialty is positively associated with a perception that human sources such as clinical nurse specialists, link nurses, doctors and experienced clinical colleagues are more accessible than text based sources. Clinical specialization is associated with different approaches to accessing research knowledge. Coronary care unit nurses were more likely to perceive local guidelines, protocols and on-line databases as more accessible than their counterparts in general medical and surgical wards. Only a third of text-based resources available to nurses on the wards had any explicit research base. These, and the remainder were out of date (mean age of textbooks 11 years), and authorship hard to ascertain.

CONCLUSION

A strategy to increase the use of research evidence by nurses should harness the influence of clinical nurse specialists, link nurses and those engaged in practice development. These roles could act as 'conduits' through which research-based messages for practice, and information for clinical decision making, could flow. This role should be explored and enhanced.

Systematic reviews of wound care management: (5) beds; (6) compression; (7) laser therapy, therapeutic ultrasound, electrotherapy and electromagnetic therapy

BACKGROUND

Chronic wounds such as leg ulcers, diabetic foot ulcers and pressure sores are common in both acute and community healthcare settings. The prevention and treatment of these wounds involves many strategies: pressure-relieving beds, mattresses and cushions are universally used as measures for the prevention and treatment of pressure sores; compression therapy in a variety of forms is widely used for venous leg ulcer prevention and treatment; and a whole range of therapies involving laser, ultrasound and electricity is also applied to chronic wounds. This report covers the final three reviews from a series of seven.

AIMS

To assess the clinical effectiveness and cost- effectiveness of: (1) pressure-relieving beds, mattresses and cushions for pressure sore prevention and treatment; (2) compression therapy for the prevention and treatment of leg ulcers; (3) low-level laser therapy, therapeutic ultrasound, electrotherapy and electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of chronic wounds. METHODS - DATA SOURCES: Nineteen electronic databases, including MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE and the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (CENTRAL), were searched. Relevant journals, conference proceedings and bibliographies of retrieved papers were handsearched. An expert panel was also consulted.

METHODS - STUDY SELECTION

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) which evaluated these interventions were eligible for inclusion in this review if they used objective measures of outcome such as wound incidence or healing rates. RESULTS - BEDS, MATTRESSES AND CUSHIONS FOR PRESSURE SORE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: A total of 45 RCTs were identified, of which 40 compared different mattresses, mattress overlays and beds. Only two trials evaluated cushions, one evaluated the use of sheepskins, and two looked at turning beds/kinetic therapy. RESULTS - COMPRESSION FOR LEG ULCERS: A total of 24 trials reporting 26 comparisons were included (two of prevention and 24 of treatment strategies). RESULTS - LOW-LEVEL LASER THERAPY, THERAPEUTIC ULTRASOUND, ELECTROTHERAPY AND ELECTROMAGNETIC THERAPY: Four RCTs of laser (for venous leg ulcers), 10 of therapeutic ultrasound (for pressure sores and venous leg ulcers), 12 of electrotherapy (for ischaemic and diabetic ulcers, and chronic wounds generally) and five of electromagnetic therapy (for venous leg ulcers and pressure sores) were included. Studies were generally small, and of poor methodological quality. CONCLUSIONS (1) Foam alternatives to the standard hospital foam mattress can reduce the incidence of pressure sores in people at risk, as can pressure-relieving overlays on the operating table. One study suggests that air-fluidised therapy may increase pressure sore healing rates. (2) Compression is more effective in healing venous leg ulcers than is no compression, and multi-layered high compression is more effective than single-layer compression. High-compression hosiery was more effective than moderate compression in preventing ulcer recurrence. (3) There is generally insufficient reliable evidence to draw conclusions about the contribution of laser therapy, therapeutic ultrasound, electrotherapy and electromagnetic therapy to chronic wound healing.

Electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of venous leg ulcers

BACKGROUND

Electromagnetic therapy is used with the aim of improving the healing of chronic wounds such as pressure sores and venous leg ulcers

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of electromagnetic therapy in the treatment of venous leg ulcers

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Wounds group search strategy was used (see Scope) to search for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of venous leg ulcers

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing electromagnetic therapy with sham electromagnetic therapy or other (standard) treatment

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Results of searches were scrutinised by one reviewer (and checked by a second) to identify possible RCTs and full reports of these were obtained. Details of eligible studies were extracted and summarised using a data extraction sheet. Attempts were made to obtain missing data by contacting authors. Data extraction was checked by a second reviewer.

MAIN RESULTS

A total of three eligible RCTs were identified. Two trials compared the use of electromagnetic therapy to sham (Ieran 1990; Kenkre 1996) and one trial (Stiller 1992) compared it with standard topical treatments. One of the trials found a difference in healing rates of borderline statistical significance between electromagnetic therapy and sham, although the direction of treatment effect was consistently in favour of electromagnetic therapy the difference was not statistically significant.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is currently no reliable evidence of benefit of electromagnetic therapy in the healing of venous leg ulcers.

Electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of pressure sores

BACKGROUND

Electromagnetic therapy is used with the aim of improving the healing of chronic wounds such as pressure sores and venous leg ulcers

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of electromagnetic therapy in the treatment of pressure sores

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Wounds Group search strategy was used (see Scope) to search for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of pressure sores

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing electromagnetic therapy with sham electromagnetic therapy, or other (standard) treatment

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Results of searches were scrutinised by one reviewer (and checked by a second) to identify possible RCTs and full reports of these were obtained. Details of eligible studies were extracted and summarised using a data extraction sheet. Attempts were made to obtain missing data by contacting authors. Data extraction was checked by a second reviewer.

MAIN RESULTS

A total of two eligible RCTs were identified for inclusion in this review. The first of these studies (Comorosan 1993) was a three armed study comparing electromagnetic therapy, electromagnetic therapy in combination with standard therapy, and standard therapy alone. The second study (Salzburg 1995) was a comparison between electromagnetic therapy and sham therapy on 30 male patients with a spinal cord injury and a grade two or grade three pressure sore. Neither study found a statistically significant difference between the healing rates of electromagnetic therapy treated and control group patients.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest no evidence of a benefit in using electromagnetic therapy to treat pressure sores. However the possibility of a beneficial or harmful effect cannot be ruled out due to the fact there were only two trials with methodological limitations and small numbers of patients.

The development of a national guideline on the management of leg ulcers

This paper describes the development of an evidence-linked clinical guideline for the management of uncomplicated venous leg ulcers. Guidelines are developed to provide recommendations for clinical practice which are based on summaries of good quality research evidence. The aim of the guideline discussed in this article is to direct primary health care practitioners to the most effective method of assessment and treatment of venous leg ulcers and to discourage practices that do not have convincing or sufficient evidence of effectiveness. The three most important steps to the development of a valid clinical guideline are: basing recommendations on the best available evidence; explicit linkage between guideline recommendations and quality of evidence; and the involvement of a multidisciplinary group. The steps are discussed in relation to the development of the guideline alongside an introductory presentation on the role guidelines can play in improving practice. Issues arising from guideline development such as valid ways of obtaining patient input and lack of evidence are also discussed.

Laser therapy for venous leg ulcers

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of low level laser therapy in the treatment of venous leg ulcers.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches of 19 databases, hand searching of journals and conference proceedings from 1948 onwards, and examination of bibliographies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing low level laser therapy with: sham laser; no laser; non-coherent light. There was no restriction on date or language. The main outcome measure used was complete healing of the ulcers.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction was done by one reviewer and checked by a second. Meta analysis was used to combine the results of trials where the interventions and outcome measures were sufficiently similar.

MAIN RESULTS

There were 4 eligible trials. Two RCTs compared laser therapy with sham, 1 with ultraviolet therapy and 1 with non-coherent, unpolarised red light. Neither of the two RCTs comparing laser with sham found a significant difference in healing rates; there was no significant of laser evident when the trials were pooled. A three-arm study compared: - laser therapy alone - laser therapy plus infrared light - non-coherent, unpolarised red light. Significantly more ulcers completely healed in the group receiving a combination of laser and infrared light compared with non-coherent, unpolarised red light. A fourth trial compared laser and ultraviolet light and found no difference.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

We have found no evidence of any benefit associated with low level laser therapy on venous leg ulcer healing. One small study suggests that a combination of laser and infrared light may promote the healing of venous ulcers, however more research is needed.

Therapeutic ultrasound for pressure sores

BACKGROUND

Pressure sores have been recorded as occurring in 4-10% of patients admitted to a UK District General Hospital (the precise rate depends on case-mix) and in an unknown proportion of patients in the community. They represent a major burden of sickness and reduced quality of life for patients and their carers, and are costly to health service providers. Pressure sores can be treated by using wound dressings, relieving pressure on the wound, by treating concurrent conditions which may delay healing, and by the use of physical therapies such as electrical stimulation, laser therapy and ultrasound.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of the use of therapeutic ultrasound in the treatment of pressure sores.

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Wounds Groups search strategy was used (see Scope) to search for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of therapeutic ultrasound for the treatment of pressure sores up to December 1999.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing therapeutic ultrasound with sham ultrasound or other (standard) treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Results of searches were scrutinised by one reviewer to identify possible RCTs and full reports of these were obtained. Details of eligible studies were extracted and summarised using a data extraction sheet. Attempts were made to obtain missing information by contacting authors. Data extraction was checked by a second reviewer. Meta-analysis was used to combine the results of trials where the interventions and outcome measures were sufficiently similar.

MAIN RESULTS

A total of 3 eligible RCTs were identified. Two RCTs compared ultrasound therapy with sham and the third compared a combination of ultrasound and ultraviolet light with laser and with standard treatment. Neither of the two RCTs comparing ultrasound with sham found a significant difference in healing rates. The trials were pooled, in the absence of significant heterogeneity. There was no evidence of benefit associated with the use of ultrasound in the treatment of pressure sores. In the three-arm comparison there was a significant increase in the weekly healing rates associated with the ultrasound/ultraviolet combination compared with laser but no statistically significant difference between ultrasound/ultraviolet and control.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest no apparent evidence of a benefit of ultrasound therapy in the treatment of pressure sores. However the possibility of a beneficial or a harmful effect cannot be ruled out due to the small number of trials with methodogical limitations and small numbers of participants.

Therapeutic ultrasound for venous leg ulcers

BACKGROUND

Ultrasound therapy is commonly used with the aim of improving the healing of chronic wounds such as pressure ulcers and venous leg ulcers.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of therapeutic ultrasound in the treatment of venous leg ulcers.

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Wounds Group search strategy was used (see Scope) to search for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of therapeutic ultrasound for the treatment of venous leg ulcers.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing therapeutic ultrasound with sham ultrasound, or other (standard) treatment

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Results of searches were scrutinised by one reviewer (and checked by a second) to identify possible RCTs and full reports of these were obtained. Details of eligible studies were extracted and summarised using a data extraction sheet. Attempts were made to obtain missing data by contacting authors. Data extraction was checked by a second reviewer.

MAIN RESULTS

A total of seven eligible RCTs were identified. Four trials compared ultrasound therapy with sham ultrasound, three trials compared ultrasound therapy with standard treatment. None of the trials found a difference in healing rates between any of the therapies, though it is noteworthy that the direction of treatment effect was consistently in favour of ultrasound (though this did not reach significance in the individual studies).

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is no good evidence of a benefit of ultrasound therapy in the healing of venous leg ulcers.

Guidelines in professions allied to medicine

BACKGROUND

Clinical practice guidelines aim to reduce inappropriate variations in practice and to promote the delivery of evidence-based health care.

OBJECTIVES

To identify and assess the effects of studies of the introduction of clinical practice guidelines in nursing (including health visiting), midwifery and other professions allied to medicine.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group specialised register, MEDLINE (1975 to 1996), EMBASE, Cinahl and Sigle to 1996, the NHS Economic Evaluations Database (1994 to 1996), DHSS-Data (1983 to 1996), the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness (1994 to 1996) and reference lists of articles. We also hand searched the journal Quality in Health Care, made personal contact with content experts and contacted libraries identified by an expert panel.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised trials, controlled before-and-after studies and interrupted time series analyses of the introduction of interventions comparing 1. Clinical guidelines plus dissemination and/or implementation strategies versus no guidelines; 2. Guidelines plus dissemination and/or implementation strategies versus guidelines plus alternative dissemination and/or implementation strategies; and 3. (post hoc) Guidelines used by professions allied to medicine versus standard physician care. The participants were nurses, midwives and other professions allied to medicine.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study quality.

MAIN RESULTS

Eighteen studies were included involving more than 467 health care professionals. The reporting of study methods was inadequate for all studies. In all but one study, nurses were the targeted professional group; one study was aimed solely at dieticians. The various behaviours targeted included the management of hypertension, low back pain and hyperlipidaemia. Nine studies were identified for comparison 1. Three out of five studies observed improvements in at least some processes of care and six out of eight studies observed improvements in outcomes of care. Only one study included a formal economic evaluation, with equivocal findings. Three studies were identified for comparison 2 but it was difficult to draw firm conclusions because of poor methods. Six studies were identified for comparison 3 (post hoc). These studies generally supported the hypothesis that there was no difference between care given by nurses using clinical guidelines and standard physician care.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is some evidence that guideline-driven care is effective in changing the process and outcome of care provided by professions allied to medicine. However, caution is needed in generalising findings to other professions and settings.

Beds, mattresses and cushions for pressure sore prevention and treatment

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of pressure relieving beds, mattresses and cushions (support surfaces) in the prevention and treatment of pressure sores.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches of 19 databases, hand searching of journals, conference proceedings, and bibliographies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials evaluating support surfaces for the prevention or treatment of pressure sores. There was no restriction on articles based on language or publication status.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction and assessment of study quality was undertaken by two reviewers independently. Trials with similar patients, comparisons, and outcomes were pooled. Where pooling was inappropriate, trials are discussed in a narrative review.

PREVENTION

29 RCTs of support surfaces for pressure sore prevention were identified. Some high specification foam mattresses were more effective than 'standard' hospital foam mattresses in moderate-high risk patients. Pressure relieving mattresses in the operating theatre reduced the incidence of pressure sores post-operatively. The relative merits of alternating and constant low pressure, and of the different alternating pressure devices are unclear. Seat cushions and simple, constant low-pressure devices have not been adequately evaluated. Limited evidence suggests that low air loss beds reduce the incidence of pressure sores in intensive care.

TREATMENT

6 RCTs of support surfaces for pressure sore treatment were identified. There is good evidence that air-fluidised and low air loss beds improve healing rates. Seat cushions have not been adequately evaluated. 2 RCTs evaluated surfaces for both prevention and treatment in the same trial.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

PREVENTION - There is good evidence of the effectiveness of high specification foam over standard hospital foam, and pressure relief in the operating theatre. Treatment - There is good evidence of the effectiveness of air-fluidised and low air loss devices as treatments. Overall, however, it is impossible to determine the most effective surface for either prevention or treatment.

Compression bandages and stockings for venous leg ulcers

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of compression bandaging and stockings in the treatment of venous leg ulcers.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches of 19 databases, hand searching of journals, conference proceedings and bibliographies. Manufacturers of compression bandages and stockings and an Advisory Panel were contacted for unpublished studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Trials that evaluated compression bandaging or stockings, as a treatment for venous leg ulcers. There was no restriction on date or language. Ulcer healing was the primary endpoint.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Details of eligible studies were extracted and summarised using a data extraction sheet. Data extraction was verified by two reviewers independently.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty two trials reporting 24 comparisons were identified. Compression was more effective than no compression (4/6 trials). When multi-layered systems were compared, elastic compression was more effective than non-elastic compression (5 trials). There was no difference in healing rates between 4-layer bandaging and other high compression multi-layered systems (3 trials). There was no difference in healing rates between elastomeric multi-layered systems (4 trials). Multi-layered high compression was more effective than single layer compression (4 trials). Compression stockings were evaluated in two trials. One found a high compression stocking plus a thrombo stocking to be more effective than a short stretch bandage. The second small trial reported no difference between the compression stockings and Unna's boot. There was insufficient data to draw conclusion about the relative cost-effectiveness of different regimens.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

Compression increases ulcer healing rates compared with no compression. Multi-layered systems are more effective than single-layered systems. High compression is more effective than low compression but there are no clear differences in the effectiveness of different types of high compression.

Clinical guidelines in nursing, midwifery and the therapies: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

While nursing, midwifery and professions allied to medicine (PAMs) are increasingly using clinical guidelines to reduce inappropriate variations in practice and ensure higher quality care, there have been no rigorous overviews of their effectiveness in relation to these professions. We identified 18 evaluations of guidelines which met established quality for evaluations of interventions aimed at changing professional practice. This paper describes characteristics of guidelines evaluated and the effectiveness of different dissemination and implementation strategies used.

METHODS

Guideline evaluations conducted since 1975 which used a randomized controlled trial, controlled before-and-after, or interrupted time-series design, were identified using a combination of database and hand searching.

FINDINGS

It is mostly impossible to tell whether the guidelines evaluated were based on evidence. The most common method of guideline dissemination was the distribution of printed educational materials. Three studies compared different dissemination and/or implementation strategies: findings suggest educational interventions may be of value in the dissemination of guidelines and confer a benefit over passive dissemination.

Effect of clinical guidelines in nursing, midwifery, and the therapies: a systematic review of evaluations

BACKGROUND

Although nursing, midwifery, and professions allied to medicine are increasingly using clinical guidelines to reduce inappropriate variations in practice and ensure higher quality care, there have been no rigorous overviews of their effectiveness, 18 evaluations of guidelines were identified that meet Cochrane criteria for scientific rigor.

METHODS

Guideline evaluations conducted since 1975 which used a randomised controlled trial, controlled before and after, or interrupted time series design were identified through a combination of database and hand searching.

RESULTS

18 studies met the inclusion criteria. Three studies evaluated guideline dissemination or implementation strategies, nine compared use of a guideline with a no guideline state; six studies examined skill substitution: performance of nurses operating according to a guideline were compared with standard care, generally provided by a physician. Significant changes in the process of care were found in six out of eight studies measuring process and in which guidelines were expected to have a positive impact on performance. In seven of the nine studies measuring outcomes of care, significant differences in favour of the intervention group were found. Skill substitution studies generally supported the hypothesis of no difference between protocol driven by nurses and care by a physician. Only one study included a formal economic evaluation, with equivocal findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from the review provide some evidence that care driven by a guideline can be effective in changing the process and outcome of care. However, many studies fell short of the criteria of the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group (EPOC) for methodological quality.

RCN guideline on the management of leg ulcers

The treatment of uncomplicated leg ulcers has not always been carried out effectively. In this article, the authors introduce an evidence-based clinical guideline for the treatment of uncomplicated leg ulcers and highlight some of the key recommendations. This is to be launched at Nursing Standard's conference on evidence-based nursing this week.

Skill mix changes: substitution or service development?

An extensive review of published studies where doctors were replaced by other health professions demonstrates considerable scope for alterations in skill mix. However, the studies reported are often dated and have design deficiencies. In health services world-wide there is a policy focus which emphasises the substitution of nurses in particular for doctors. However, this substitution may not be real and increased roles for non-physician personnel may result in service development/enhancement rather than labour substitution. Further study of skill mix changes and whether non-physician personnel are being used as substitutes or complements for doctors is required urgently.

Compression therapy for venous ulcers: a systematic review

This article summarises the findings of a systematic review carried out by the NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination and the Center for Evidence-Based Nursing. Based on a rigorous analysis and synthesis of available research, the review concludes that training in the assessment of leg ulcers and the correct application of compression therapy appears to be more important than the particular products used. Recommendations for audit are also reported.

A systematic review of compression treatment for venous leg ulcers

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the clinical and cost effectiveness of compression systems for treating venous leg ulcers.

METHODS

Systematic review of research. Search of 19 electronic databases including Medline, CINAHL, and Embase. Relevant journals and conference proceedings were hand searched and experts were consulted.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Rate of healing and proportion of ulcers healed within a time period.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomised controlled trials, published or unpublished, with no restriction on date or language, that evaluated compression as a treatment for venous leg ulcers.

RESULTS

24 randomised controlled trials were included in the review. The research evidence was quite weak: many trials had inadequate sample size and generally poor methodology. Compression seems to increase healing rates. Various high compression regimens are more effective than low compression. Few trials have compared the effectiveness of different high compression systems.

CONCLUSIONS

Compression systems improve the healing of venous leg ulcers and should be used routinely in uncomplicated venous ulcers. Insufficient reliable evidence exists to indicate which system is the most effective. More good quality randomised controlled trials in association with economic evaluations are needed, to ascertain the most cost effective system for treating venous leg ulcers.

Evidence-based nursing: an introduction

The Art & Science section of Nursing Standard this week is devoted to encouraging nurses to use evidence in their practice. As well as publishing some of the papers from the recent Evidence-Based Nursing conference in London, this report is based on the editorial which appeared in the pilot issue of Evidence-Based Nursing, a new journal jointly published by the BMJ Publishing Group and the RCN Publishing Company. It highlights the importance of using evidence in practice and explores the role of the new journal, which will be launched in November 1997, in helping nurses to achieve this aim.

Identification and analysis of randomised controlled trials in nursing: a preliminary study

OBJECTIVES

To describe preliminary work undertaken for development of a nursing contribution to the Cochrane Collaboration. To ascertain whether there are randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on nursing care which need to be identified for inclusion in systematic reviews of the effects of health care.

DESIGN

Searches by Medline (1966-94) and by hand of 11 nursing research journals from inception to the end of 1994 to identify RCTs and systematic reviews; and a comparison of searches by hand and by Medline for three nursing research journals.

MAIN MEASURES

Total number of RCTs identified and number of RCTs published in nursing journals; the sensitivity of Medline searches; and aspects of nursing care evaluated by RCT.

RESULTS

The work is ongoing and 522 reports of RCTs and 20 systematic reviews of effectiveness have been identified so far. The sensitivity of Medline searches for RCTs in nursing journals is as low as 36% for one journal and the lack of reference to research design in the title or abstract was the main reason for the lack of sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

There are RCTs that evaluate aspects of nursing care, and are published in nursing and non-nursing journals, and are largely undertaken by nurses. These must be reviewed in ongoing systematic reviews of the effects of health care (including those undertaken as part of the Cochrane Collaboration). Nursing journals must be hand searched to identify these studies as the lack of reference to study design in the titles and abstracts of nursing trials leads to poor indexing in electronic databases such as Medline.