The Ten Principles of Green Sample Preparation

Hypercrosslinked β-cyclodextrin polymer for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of organic pollutants from sea water and wastewater

This work explores the application of a hypercrosslinked β-cyclodextrin based polymer (called as "nanosponge", NS), as sorbent for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of a group of 48 organic pollutants from sea and wastewater. Extraction parameters such as type and volume of extraction solvent, amount of NS, adsorption and desorption time were optimized and applied to the extraction of thirteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, fourteen polychlorinated biphenyls, eleven organochlorine pesticides, two organophosphorus esters, seven UV filters and one antibacterial agent from both types of water. The extracts were analysed by gas chromatography coupled with a single quadrupole mass spectrometer allowing the determination of the 48 analytes in a 32 min chromatographic run. Under optimal conditions, the method showed good linearity, with R2 > 0.99 for most of the analytes in both matrices. The limits of quantification were in the range 8 ng/L - 2 μg/L for sea water and 11 ng/L - 1.4 μg/L for wastewater. Excellent results were also obtained in terms of recovery for the majority of analytes, reporting an average value of 85 % and 88 % and an average RSD of 5 and 6 %, for sea water and wastewater, respectively. To evaluate the applicability and sustainability of the proposed method, it was subjected to Blue Applicability Grade Index (BAGI) metric and to Sample Preparation Metric of Sustainability (SPMS) achieving a total score of 67.5 and 7.05, respectively.

Miniaturized QuEChERS extraction (μQuEChERS) combined with HPLC-MS/MS as new analytical method for determination of 105 residues of pesticides in fruit by-products extracts

This study provides an improved approach to determining 105 pesticide residues in fruit by-product extracts, based on the miniaturization of the original QuEChERS (μQuEChERS) followed by HPLC-MS/MS. The methodology achieved good precision (RSDR and RSDR < 19 %) and accuracy, with recovery rates ranged from 90 % to 107 % and LOQ was 10 μg/kg, meeting the criteria presented in SANTE/11312/2021v2. The method was applied to various fruit by-products, including extracts from citrus pomace, sweet cherry pits, grape seeds, and date seeds, making this the first study to determine pesticide residues in by-products. The results demonstrated that while pesticide concentrations in extracts were generally below regulatory limits for their corresponding edible portions, some variability in residue reduction rates was observed depending on the compound. These findings underscore the need of monitoring pesticide residues in by-product extracts, especially as these materials are increasingly purposed for use in functional foods. This validated μQuEChERS method offers an environmentally friendly, and reliable tool for ensuring the safety of fruit by-products in the context of a circular economy requiring very small portion size.

Guidelines on the proper selection of greenness and related metric tools in analytical chemistry - a tutorial

BACKGROUND

The metric tools that aim to assess greenness, whiteness or related aspects of analytical procedures are gaining in popularity. At the same time, their application is not standardized, leading to unintentional abuses.

RESULTS

Within this study, two datasets were created, consisting of the greenness assessment results for 27 (for general assessment) and 3 (for reproducibility study) analytical procedures, obtained with available greenness and related metric tools. The first dataset was assessed with multivariate statistical tools, and the analysis shows that metric tools give correlated results. The second dataset was used to calculate the reproducibility of metric tools results.

SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY

Based on the results of multivariate statistics and reproducibility analyses, we propose guidelines for the application of metric tools. Obeying these guidelines will result in a more standardized approach to assessment, consistency of results, and drawing more meaningful conclusions.

A flower-shaped recycled polymeric-coated cellulose paper for the isolation of organic contaminants from waters

Polymeric waste, often discarded from everyday activities, poses environmental risks. An eco-sustainable thin-film microextraction approach (TFME) utilizing flower-like filter paper coated with waste polymers as the sorptive phase is presented herein for isolating volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from water samples. This particular phase configuration allows an efficient stirring with minimal resource consumption. The sorptive phase is prepared by dip-coating, which offers simplicity and enables simple polymer reusability. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and expanded polystyrene (PS) residues were evaluated as polymeric coatings, the latter providing a more efficient isolation of the analytes in shorter times. The effect of the main variables involved in the synthesis (paper size, polymer selection, concentration of the polymeric precursor, and the number of dips) and extraction process (extraction and elution parameters) was thoroughly evaluated. Working under the optimum conditions and using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) as the instrumental technique, quantification limits in the range of 9-10 µg L-1 were obtained for toluene, o- and p-xylene, ethylbenzene and styrene. Intra-day and inter-day precision (expressed as relative standard deviation) better than 7.6 %, and accuracy (expressed as relative recoveries) in the 92-110 % range were also obtained. The developed method was applied successfully to varied drinking water samples, revealing pollutants across diverse packaging materials. In tap waters, laboratory levels of styrene were noted (18 ± 3 µg L-1). Mineral water in biobased cartons exhibited styrene, toluene (15.2 ± 0.3 µg L-1), o-xylene (5.5 ± 0.2 µg L-1), along with detected styrene and toluene in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles.

Biocompatible composites based on alginate, polycaprolactone, and nanocellulose - A review

Biocompatible composite materials are gaining attention for biomedical applications due to their biodegradability, mechanical strength, and tunability. The fabrication techniques and applications significantly impact composite performance. This paper explores the synthesis of composites from alginate, polycaprolactone (PCL), and nanocellulose, emphasizing their distinct properties for biomedical use. Alginate provides excellent biocompatibility and gelling ability, PCL offers controlled mechanical strength, and nanocellulose enhances stability due to its superior mechanical properties. Key fabrication techniques include solution mixing, hot pressing, melt mixing/extrusion, electrospinning, and 3D printing, each influencing structural integrity, mechanical properties, and material dispersion. Optimizing fabrication methods is crucial for achieve desirable properties in specific applications. The choice of synthesis technique directly affects the final use, such as drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds, or wound dressings. This review discusses the challenges and prospects of developing alginate-, PCL-, and nanocellulose-based composites, offering insights into their future biomedical applications.

Practicality evaluation of novel microextraction techniques for the determination of PFAS in food and water samples using the Blue Applicability Grade Index

BACKGROUND

Due to their high stability, persistence, and non-degradability, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are considered to be "forever chemicals" that can be present in a wide range of samples. Towards the development of novel analytical strategies for the reduction of the environmental impact of the analytical scheme, a plethora of novel solid-phase microextraction and miniaturized extraction techniques have been proposed for the determination of PFAS. However, the evaluation of the applicability of these protocols in terms of their practicality is still scarce.

RESULTS

In this article, the Blue Analytical Grade Index (BAGI) was used to evaluate the practicality of the sorbent-based microextraction techniques that were developed during the last decade for PFAS. In total thirty-four protocols were evaluated, resulting in a minimum score of 50.0 and a maximum score of 77.5.

SIGNIFICANCE

These findings clearly indicate that there is significant room for improvement and there is still a need for the development of microextraction approaches with higher practicality. Moreover, with regards to the best-performing protocols, their greenness was also assessed using the AGREEprep metric to enable a more comprehensive comparison.

Environmentally sustainable needle hub in-syringe μ-SPE method using metal-organic gel for on-site extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples

A green, simple, low-cost, miniaturized, and portable needle hub-in-syringe micro solid phase extraction (NH-IS-μ-SPE) method was developed using a green metal-organic gel (MOG) sorbent. Coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), this approach enables efficient extraction and preconcentration of seven selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) directly from environmental water samples, facilitating on-site sample preparation. Key parameters affecting extraction efficiency were systematically optimized, supported by molecular docking to elucidate interaction mechanisms. The method demonstrated excellent linearity across the range of 0.05-100 μg L-1 with high correlation coefficients (R2: 0.9985-0.9999 in blank water, 0.9906-0.9976 in domestic water, and 0.9923-0.9991 in river water). Limits of quantification and detection were achieved in the ranges of 0.02-1.2 μg L-1 and 0.008-0.4 μg L-1, respectively, with strong intra-, inter-day, and inter-batch precision (RSD ≤ 8.5 %). The proposed device demonstrated notable cost-effectiveness, attributed to the low raw material cost of Al-MOG (MYR 2.56 g-1) and its reusability for 10 extraction cycles. The analyte-loaded sorbents remained stable up to 5 days across diverse water matrices, revealing the method's potential for practical on-site extraction. Analysis of environmental water samples yielded satisfactory recoveries of 77.7-118.0 %. While the manual operation limits high-throughput applications, the approach adheres to green analytical chemistry principles by minimizing solvent and sample consumption. Comprehensive validations using GAPI, AGREE, AGREEprep, BAGI, and the RGB model confirm the method's practical applicability, environmental sustainability, and analytical performance in microextraction technologies.

Development of High-Pressure Extraction and Automatic Steam Distillation Methods for Aronia mitschurinii, Juvenile Ginger, and Holy Basil Plants

Sample preparation is the most time-consuming part of phytochemical, agricultural chemical, and food science studies and is constantly being improved. This includes the development of modern extraction methods, such as high-pressure extraction and automatic steam distillation. These methods feature high reproducibility, low time consumption, and the ability to run several parallel samples. However, the ideal parameters for processing plant materials using these methods have not been fully explored. These parameters include those that produce the highest yield and those that produce yields comparable to less modern extraction techniques, which would allow for a comparison of data to a wide range of preexisting data obtained from plant materials in different growing locations and climates. As such, this study examined extracts produced by reflux extraction, high-pressure extraction, and traditional and automatic steam distillation for three plants: aronia, holy basil, and juvenile ginger. High-pressure extraction methods were developed to produce extracts similar to those produced by reflux extraction, while automatic distillation methods were developed to produce high essential oil yields. The automatic steam distillation yields were 55.81 ± 1.97 mg/g of holy basil, 61.52 ± 0.61 mg/g of ginger, and 45.79 ± 1.38 mg/g of aronia. The high-pressure extraction yields were 11.09 ± 1.46 mg GAE/g of holy basil, 154.50 ± 17.10 mg of anthocyanins/mL of aronia, 6.60 ± 0.55 mg GAE/g of ginger, and 3.27 ± 0.25 mg GAE/g of ginger. These were compared to reflux yields of 32.71 ± 5.22 mg GAE/g of holy basil, 253.00 ± 39.56 mg of anthocyanin/mL of aronia, and 3.34 ± 2.07 mg GAE/g of ginger.

Innovative eco-sustainable reishi mushroom-based adsorbents for progesterone removal and agricultural sustainability

The pervasive presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), particularly progesterone, in aquatic ecosystems poses significant ecological and human health risks, necessitating the development of sustainable and efficient removal strategies. This study introduces an innovative, eco-friendly approach utilizing non-edible reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum) and its calcined form as natural adsorbents for progesterone removal while simultaneously exploring the potential of the formed composites as sustainable agricultural amendments. The adsorption efficiency of both reishi mushroom powder and its calcined form was systematically optimized under varying pH, adsorbent dose, temperature, and contact time conditions. The adsorption capacities of reishi mushroom and its calcined form for progesterone were assessed using nine non-linear isotherm models. Among these, the Langmuir and Freundlich models provided the best fit to the experimental data (R 2 ∼ 0.99), demonstrating high adsorption capacities of 90.52 mg g-1 for reishi mushroom and 118.10 mg g-1 for calcined reishi mushroom under optimal conditions (pH 3, 25 °C, 0.1 g and 0.075 g doses, respectively) following pseudo-second-order and mixed-order kinetic models. Both materials were fully characterized before and after the adsorption process using XRD, FTIR, and SEM techniques. Thermodynamic analysis revealed the process to be exothermic, spontaneous, and highly ordered, driven by hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals forces. Molecular docking analysis shows that ganoderic acid A and progesterone bind strongly to key plant hormone receptors (GID1, TIR1, BRI1), indicating their potential to enhance plant growth by influencing gibberellin, auxin, and brassinosteroid signaling pathways. Beyond environmental remediation, the formed composites exhibited exceptional potential in enhancing agricultural productivity. Composite treatments, particularly progesterone adsorbed on calcined reishi mushroom, significantly improved seed germination rates (95%), shoot-to-root elongation (2.5 : 1), and overall plant growth (39 cm height, 200 g fresh weight). Soil quality assessments revealed increased organic matter content and improved fertility, highlighting the dual benefit of these adsorbents in environmental remediation and sustainable agriculture. The greenness profile of the proposed method, evaluated using NEMI, AGP, and Modified GAPI metrics, further underscores its eco-sustainability, with an eco-scale score of 94 and a BAGI blueness score of 75, affirming its alignment with green analytical chemistry principles. This study introduces a novel, cost-effective, and eco-friendly method for progesterone removal while pioneering the use of waste-derived adsorbents in circular agriculture. By utilizing reishi mushroom and its calcined form, this research addresses both water contamination and sustainable farming, advancing eco-friendly technologies.

Electromembrane extraction (EME)-LC-MS/MS of khat: improving separation and determination of bioactive ingredients in traditional plant and vitreous humor

PURPOSE

Regional traditional plant khat, which have been recreationally used world-wide recently, has been proven to be a mixture of several biologically active ingredients. Herein, a chosen specimen, vitreous humor (VH) and a novel pretreatment, electromembrane extraction (EME), are applied for forensic investigations of such abused plant.

METHODS

VH, as an alternative matrix, is being used for evaluating possible compounds more and more; EME, a novel and efficient pretreatment method, is applied to detect the ingredients from natural complex matrices with advantages of a more sustainable microextraction technique. This study aims to analyze the ingredients of khat, norephedrine (NE), norpseudoephedrine (NPE) and cathinone (CTN), as well as their concentrations in VH of khat-treated mice applying EME.

RESULTS

After optimization, 2-ethylnitrobenzene (ENB)/undecanol was used as the support liquid membrane (SLM), HCl (pH = 2) as the acceptor solution, extraction voltage at 60 V, and extraction time for 30 min. The established EME was combined with liquid chromatography-ultraviolet spectrometry (LC-UV) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to evaluate spiked VH. The LOD of NE, NPE, and CTN were 0.40-1.90 µg/mL with linearity (R2 > 0.9624) and repeatability (< 13%).

CONCLUSIONS

By this method, NE, NPE, and CTN were detected to be 14.4 ± 0.54 µg/mL, 8.50 ± 0.69 µg/mL, and 90.5 ± 7.88 µg/mL in VH of mice administrated with khat for 28 days.

Recent advances in screen-printed carbon electrodes for food additive analysis

Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) are regarded as the actual and future sensing option for additive analysis in food samples; nonetheless, the sample preparation, selectivity, and detectability are key challenges to overcome for its technological development and wide application. In the present review, we inform, discuss, and compare some pivotal aspects associated with the fabrication of SPCEs, the presence of additives in foods, sample preparation, and voltammetric measurements of additives in food samples. Also, the proposed study has indicated that it is possible to develop suitable options for electroanalytical methodologies by using bare or modified SPCEs, which present affordable results in terms of selectivity, linear concentration range, and limit of detection for different classes of additives. Lastly, the review introduces challenging points that can be carefully evaluated for the next generation of SPCEs dedicated to additive analysis.

A new kind of polystyrene/polyethyleneimine nanofibres coordinated with palladium for fast and efficient extraction of methotrexate and its polyglutamate metabolites in different matrices

Methotrexate (MTX) is a drug that has long been used in high doses as an anti-cancer drug and lately in low doses as a treatment for autoimmune diseases. It is necessary to be determined in various matrices because the drug has a narrow therapeutic range and a high persistence in the environment. Since MTX and its polyglutamate metabolites (MTXPGs) have strong polarity and the potential to be converted during sample processing, rapid and efficient extraction of these targets has provided technical challenges for development of analytical methods for them. A new Pd(ii)/polyethyleneimine (PEI)/polystyrene (PS) nanofibre was prepared and characterized by X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy, thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, etc. The nanofibre was applied as a sorbent to extract MTX and MTXPGs in whole blood and MTX in urine and water. The extracted analytes were then desorbed by a water solution containing 10% methanol and 20% ammonium hydroxide (v/v) and eventually quantified by high performance liquid chromatography. The peak area of the target substances in the extraction solution and its concentration were linear in the range of 20.0 (∼37.8 to 1000 ng/mL); intraday and interday RSD were 4.6-6.4% and 5.7-14.6%, respectively. The detection limit of this method was 6.0-11.3 ng/mL. The results showed that the method can be used for the determination of MTX and MTXPGs in human whole blood and MTX in urine/water samples.

Innovative Sample Preparation Strategies for Emerging Pollutants in Environmental Samples

Sample treatment plays a crucial role in ensuring accurate analysis of contaminants in aqueous, gaseous, and solid matrices. Emerging contaminants such as microplastics and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances pose challenges due to their ubiquity and potential adverse effects on the environment and human health. By setting stringent guidelines, environmental protection agencies drive research and innovation in analytical methodologies. However, current reference methods are based on traditional techniques with a high use of chemicals and considerable waste generation. This review highlights the importance of advanced techniques, including solid-phase extraction and microextraction methods, enhanced by novel materials, for preparing environmental samples. Additionally, it discusses innovative formats and devices, such as drone-based systems and three-dimensional-printed devices, which are expanding the scope of environmental monitoring. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of trends and advances in sample preparation for environmental analysis over the past five years, offering insights into progress made and future directions.

Violet Innovation Grade Index (VIGI): A New Survey-Based Metric for Evaluating Innovation in Analytical Methods

The violet innovation grade index (VIGI) is a pioneering metric designed to evaluate the degree of innovation in analytical methods. This study introduces the VIGI tool (https://bit.ly/VIGItool) and demonstrates its application in assessing the innovative potential of various analytical techniques. VIGI integrates ten distinct criteria─sample preparation and instrumentation, data processing and software, white analytical chemistry and its derivatives, regulatory compliance, materials and reagents, miniaturization, automation, interdisciplinarity, sensitivity, and approach─providing a comprehensive evaluation that complements existing green, blue, and red metrics. Each method is assessed using a survey-based approach, resulting in a star-shaped decagon pictogram that visually represents its innovation score. The VIGI metric was successfully applied to five case studies, revealing insights into the strengths and weaknesses of each method in terms of innovation. Methods incorporating advanced materials, miniaturized devices, and automation scored highly, reflecting their cutting-edge contributions to analytical chemistry. Conversely, methods lacking advanced data processing or interdisciplinary applications scored lower, highlighting areas for potential improvement. This work underscores the importance of prioritizing innovative metrics like VIGI in the development and evaluation of analytical methods to ensure that analytical chemistry remains at the forefront of scientific advancement through more effective and sustainable practices.

In-Syringe Vortex-Assisted Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Based on Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent for Simultaneous Determination of the Two Anticancer Polyphenols Chrysin and Resveratrol

The simultaneous determination of multiple anticancer drugs in combination therapy poses a significant analytical challenge due to their complex nature and low concentrations. In this study, we propose an in-syringe vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction (IS-VA-LLME), based on a green natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) for the simultaneous determination of two coadministered anticancer drugs (resveratrol and chrysin) prior to the HPLC-UV analysis, for the first time. The key parameters affecting the extraction efficiency, such as extraction solvent, vortex time, pH, and ionic strength were optimized. Under optimal conditions, the method demonstrates good linearity over the range of 0.05-15.0 μg/mL for RVT and 0.50-15.0 μg/mL for CHR with low limits of detection (LODs) of 16.78 and 161.60 ng/mL for RVT and CHR, respectively, confirming the high sensitivity of the method. The interday and intraday precision values, expressed as %RSDs, are below 2.0%, indicating good repeatability and reproducibility. Furthermore, the proposed method could be efficiently applied for the determination of the two drugs in human plasma and river water. The obtained results show satisfactory % recoveries (97.80%-102.04%), highlighting the accuracy and reliability of the developed method. The sustainability of the method was comprehensively evaluated using seven different tools. In conclusion, the developed IS-VA-LLME-NaDES allows for enhanced extraction efficiency, reduced extraction time, and improved recovery of the target analytes. This method holds great promise for applications in clinical and environmental research, enabling the precise quantification of these anticancer drugs in complex matrices.

A new sample preparation approach based on microwave-induced combustion in disposable vessels for Ni and V determination by ICP-MS in crude oil

The presence of Ni and V in crude oil is associated with pollutant emissions, corrosive processes and low-quality products. Nevertheless, the knowledge of the concentration of these elements, helps to predict geochemical characteristics and to bring information about the crude oil source. Moreover, Ni and V can cause problems during the crude oil refining process. Therefore, the development of alternative, low-cost and rapid approaches for Ni and V determination in crude oil is still welcomed and was the aim of this work. The proposed microwave-induced combustion in disposable vessels (MIC-DV) system allows the use cheap and/or reusable materials, combined to the possibility of sample combustion under atmospheric pressure and using a domestic microwave. The parameters evaluated during MIC-DV optimization were, sample mass (5-20 mg), and volume (1-10 mL) and concentration (0.5-7 mol L-1 HNO3) of absorbing solution. MIC-DV was applied for the digestion of ten crude oil and the results were compared with those obtained after microwave-assisted digestion (MAD) and Ni and V determination by inductively couple plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The agreement values achieved ranged from 92 to 103 % for Ni and from 93 to 106 % for V. The limits of quantification after MIC-DV/ICP-MS were 0.28 and 0.15 μg g-1 for Ni and V, respectively. The developed MIC-DV method, can be considered environmentally friendly since it uses low-cost materials and instrumentation, requires reduced handling (based on the single vessel principle), avoids the use of additional dilution steps and minimizes the digest contamination.

Advances in green sample preparation methods for bioanalytical laboratories focusing on drug analysis

Bioanalytical laboratories face significant challenges in sample preparation due to the complexity of biological matrices and the low concentrations of target analytes. This review focuses on advances in green sample preparation (GSP) techniques tailored to meet these challenges while promoting sustainability. Innovations in sorbents, including metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), sol-gel-based materials, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), carbon-based materials, and natural sorbents like cellulose and kapok fiber, have enhanced extraction efficiency and selectivity. Green solvents such as deep eutectic solvents (DES), ionic liquids (ILs), supramolecular solvents (SUPRAs), and switchable hydrophilicity solvents (SHSs) further reduce environmental impact by minimizing toxic solvent use. This review highlights their use in drug analysis, emphasizing their roles in enhancing extraction efficiency, selectivity, and environmental sustainability. Recent applications demonstrate the integration of these sorbents and solvents into bioanalytical workflows, significantly improving analytical performance while adhering to Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC) principles. It is anticipated that this comprehensive review will aid scholars in the formulation of selective, rapid, environmentally friendly, straightforward, sensitive, and precise analytical methodologies for bioanalysis, thereby promoting innovation and sustainability within drug analysis protocols.

How green are radiopharmaceutical sciences?

The rapid growth of radiopharmaceutical sciences, driven by regulatory approvals of theranostic agents and the expanding role of PET imaging, underscores the need for sustainable and green practices. While radiopharmaceuticals offer high precision and targeted therapy with minimal systemic toxicity, the field faces challenges related to increasing demand, energy consumption, and waste management. The nuclear medicine market is projected to reach $30 billion by 2030, necessitating the integration of sustainability principles such as green chemistry and green engineering into radiopharmaceutical development. Given the energy-intensive nature of radiochemical processes, these principles provide strategies for reducing environmental impact. However, radiopharmaceutical sciences require adaptations to traditional sustainability frameworks due to factors like radiation safety, speed, and automation. This perspective examines the applicability of the 12 principles of green chemistry and engineering, proposing nine key principles tailored to radiopharmaceutical sciences. These principles address waste prevention, radionuclide recycling, energy efficiency, and the adoption of cleaner irradiation technologies. As the field evolves, incorporating sustainability into training programs and research initiatives will be essential.

Dispersive microextraction techniques as efficient strategies for the analysis of saliva: A comprehensive review

This review article brings together two of the current hot-spots in the field of analytical chemistry, and more specifically in the sample preparation stage: the use of dispersive microextraction techniques, and the analysis of saliva. Due to saliva collection is minimally invasive, it is increasingly being considered in bioanalysis. Moreover, bioanalysis is routine and agglutinates a high number of samples demanding for fast results, thus high-throughput assays are highly required. On the other hand, if something characterizes biological matrices, including saliva, is their complex composition. To adapt the matrix to the analytical method to be applied and to avoid as far as possible the matrix effect, an efficient sample preparation stage is required. To this regard dispersive microextraction techniques, as rapid, efficient and sustainable sample preparation approaches, play a crucial role. In the first part of the review, different workflows for the collection and pretreatment will be briefly described, placing special emphasis on advice to follow. Then, a compilation of the different applications of dispersive techniques for the analysis of saliva is presented, in which the trends observed in both specific analytes and microextraction approaches used are discussed.

An acidless microwave-assisted wet digestion of biological samples as a greener alternative: applications from COVID-19 monitoring to plant nanobiotechnology

Sample preparation in an analytical sequence increases the number of errors, is highly time-consuming, and involves the manipulation of hazardous reagents. Therefore, when an improvement in an analytical method is required, the sample preparation step needs to be optimised or redesigned. Moreover, this step can involve significant toxic reagents and a high volume of waste. In that regard, this study proposes a new procedure based on microwave-assisted wet digestion combining two green strategies: a miniaturised system (with a few microlitres of volume) and the only use of hydrogen peroxide. Three biological samples (human serum, urine, and plant in vitro material) were chosen due to their high potential for disease monitoring, toxicological studies, and biotechnology applications. Several trace elements (Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, and Zn) were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. For human serum and urine, a certified reference material was used to check for accuracy; the recovery ranged from 72% (Cd, ICP-MS) to 105% (Mg, ICP OES) for serum, while for urine, they varied from 82% (Ni, ICP-MS) to 122% (Zn, ICP-MS). For the soybean callus sample (in vitro plant material), a comparison between the proposed method and the acid digestion method was conducted to evaluate the accuracy, and the results agreed. The detection limits were 0.001-60 µg L-1 (lowest for Cd), thus demonstrating a suitable sensitivity. Moreover, the decomposition efficiency was demonstrated by determining the residual carbon, and a low amount was found in the final product digested (below 0.8% w v-1). A green metric approach was calculated for the proposed method, and according to AGREEprep software, it was found to be around 0.4. Finally, the method was applied to urine samples collected in patients with COVID-19 and soybean callus cultivated with silver nanoparticles. This sample preparation method is a new acidless and miniaturised alternative for elemental analysis involving biological samples.

From spectroscopic data variability to optimal preprocessing: leveraging multivariate error in almond powder adulteration of different grain size

Analysing samples in their original form is increasingly crucial in analytical chemistry due to the need for efficient and sustainable practices. Analytical chemists face the dual challenge of achieving accuracy while detecting minute analyte quantities in complex matrices, often requiring sample pretreatment. This necessitates the use of advanced techniques with low detection limits, but the emphasis on sensitivity can conflict with efforts to simplify procedures and reduce solvent use. This article discusses the shift towards green analytical methods, focusing on portable spectroscopic techniques in the near-infrared (NIR) region. A case study involving the prediction of adulteration in almond flour with bitter almond flour illustrates the importance of particle size and the integration between the sample and the instrument. The study emphasizes the necessity of investigating the multivariate error associated with raw data to enhance data preprocessing strategies. This research provides valuable insights for professionals in the field, presenting a methodology applicable to a broad range of analytical applications while underscoring the critical role of raw data analysis in achieving accurate and reliable results.

Hydrophobic deep eutectic solvent-ferrofluid microextraction followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for the enantioselective determination of chiral agrochemicals in natural waters

The increasing use of chiral agrochemicals sold as racemic formulations raises concern for the negative impacts that inactive enantiomers can have on aquatic life and human health. The present work just focuses on the determination of ten chiral pesticides in river water samples by applying a ferrofluid-based microextraction followed by their stereoselective liquid chromatography analysis. To develop the ferrofluid, magnetite nanoparticles were prepared and coated with oleic acid and then dispersed in a hydrophobic natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES), composed of L-menthol and thymol (1:1). The stable colloidal dispersion was characterised by scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The analyte microextraction from 5 ml river samples was performed using 50 µl of ferrofluid, while acidified acetonitrile (150 µl) was used to break down the ferrofluid and solubilise the NaDES containing the analytes. All the extracts were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. For each analyte, the baseline separation of isomers was achieved on a Lux i-Amylose-3 column (amylose tris(3-chloro-5-methylphenylcarbamate) working in reversed-phase mode; the combination with mass spectrometry detection allows the overall separation of 24 isomers (ten chiral analytes among which eight containing a single (one) chiral centre, one with two chiral centres and the last one existing in four stereoisomeric forms, due to the presence of two regioisomers with a chiral carbon) within 37 min. The method showed very good figures of merit in terms of recoveries (77.7-97.5%), intra-day and inter-day precision (2.7-7.7% and 6.9-14.9%, respectively), limit of detection (0.01-0.35 µg/L), limit of quantitation (0.03-1.20 µg/L), linear dynamic range, and intra-day and inter-day accuracy (1.2-14.8% and 1.8-15.0%, respectively). The presented method was able to detect 14 out of 24 isomers at the preventive limit established by the Italian legislation for single pesticide (that for a chiral pesticide is the sum of all its isomers) in surface waters, set at 0.1 µg/l. Finally, the method was evaluated using AGREEprep and ComplexGAPI metrics, compared with other ferrofluid-based methods, and applied to the analysis of water samples from two Italian rivers (the Nera River and the Tiber River), providing to be sustainable and reliable for the application to real river matrices.

Eco-friendly solvents in liquid-liquid microextraction techniques for biological and environmental analysis: a critical review

In recent years, green solvents have emerged as promising alternatives in the field of analytical chemistry, replacing conventional organic solvents known for their toxicity, volatility, and flammability. The combination of these solvents with liquid-liquid microextraction techniques has facilitated the development of simpler, faster, more economical, and environment-friendly methodologies for the analysis of samples of varying complexity. This review discusses the fundamental physicochemical properties and advantages of using deep eutectic solvents, ionic liquids, switchable-hydrophilicity solvents, supramolecular solvents, and surfactants as extractants. Furthermore, analytical methods based on liquid-liquid microextraction techniques developed in the last 5 years for the determination of organic compounds and metals in biological and environmental samples are presented and discussed, highlighting their applications and benefits to improve analytical performance and sustainability.

Water as a green solvent for sustainable sample preparation: single drop microextraction of N-nitrosamines from losartan tablets

Water, renowned for its sustainability and minimal toxicity, is an ideal candidate for environmentally friendly solvent-based microextraction. However, its potential as an extractant solvent in miniaturized sample preparation remains largely unexplored. This paper pioneers using water as the extraction solvent in headspace single-drop microextraction (HS-SDME) for N-nitrosamines from losartan tablets. Autonomous HS-SDME is executed by an Arduino-controlled, lab-made Cartesian robot, using water for the online preconcentration of enriched extracts through direct injection into a column-switching system. Critical experimental parameters influencing HS-SDME performance are systematically explored through univariate and multivariate experiments. While most previously reported methods for determining N-nitrosamines in pharmaceutical formulations rely on highly selective mass spectrometry detection techniques to handle the strong matrix effects typical of pharmaceutical samples, the water-based HS-SDME method efficiently eliminates the interfering effects of a large amount of the pharmaceutical active ingredient and tablet excipients, allowing straightforward analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV-Vis). Under optimized conditions, the developed method exhibits linear responses from 100 to 2400 ng g-1, demonstrating appropriate detectability, precision, and accuracy for the proposed application. Additionally, the environmental sustainability of the method is assessed using the AGREEprep methodology, positioning it as an outstanding green alternative for determining hazardous contaminants in pharmaceutical products.

Humic acid-coated paper: An affordable mixed-mode weak-cation exchanger for isolating cocaine, codeine, and methadone from saliva samples for their direct infusion mass spectrometric analysis

The use of natural materials as precursors for synthesizing sorptive phases can reduce the environmental impact of the sample preparation step. In this article, two natural materials, i.e., cellulose and humic acids, are combined, resulting in a porous and flat sorptive phase that combines hydrophobic and cation exchange interactions. The simple preparation, with low reagent consumption, and the high production capacity make this process affordable. The performance of the humic acid-coated paper has been studied towards three basic drugs (cocaine, codeine, and methadone), and it has allowed the determination of the targets in saliva by direct infusion tandem mass spectrometry. The simultaneous extraction of many samples and the rapid analysis (2 min) provide a high sample throughput. The resulting method has been validated following the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) M10 validation guide. Working at the optimum conditions, the linear range was established from 5 to 500 μg·L-1 and the detection limits were established at 1.5 μg·L-1 for all the analytes. At the LOQ, the inter-day precision and intra-day precision, expressed as relative standard deviation, were better than 13.6% and 17.9%, respectively. For low/mid/high quality controls, the inter-day precision and intra-day precision were better than 11.8% and 9.1%, respectively. The accuracy, calculated as relative recovery, was in the range of 83.8-106.1%. Several samples from patients under treatment with codeine-containing prescriptions were finally analyzed.

Mixture Design and Doehlert Matrix for Optimization of Energized Dispersive Guided Extraction (EDGE) of Theobromine and Caffeine from Cocoa Bean Shells

This work describes the development of a method for the extraction of methylxanthines from cocoa bean shell (CBS) by employing the novel Energized Dispersive Guided Extraction (EDGE) system. The mixtures were composed of ethanol-methanol-water and the ratio was optimized using a simplex-centroid design. Doehlert design (DD) was used to optimize the variables of temperature and time while using methylxanthine content obtained by HPLC-DAD as an analytical response. The optimized mixture consisted of water-ethanol in a 3:2 ratio. The optimum operating conditions for extraction were achieved at a temperature of 148.5 °C and 382 s. Under optimal conditions, 20.14 mg g-1 DM of theobromine and 3.53 mg g-1 DM of caffeine were found in the CBS extract. Methylxanthines were quantified with good linearity, LOQs, LODs, precision, and accuracy. The EDGE system, a newly automated extraction instrument, has proven to be very efficient for the recovery of theobromine and caffeine, and is considered a green extraction procedure, as demonstrated by the analytical greenness metric for sample preparation.

Measurement of tyre-based microplastics using traditional and quantum cascade laser-based infrared spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Despite the potential environmental impact of TWPs (tyre wear particles), there is a lack of reliable analytical methodologies suitable for their routine identification and characterization. The number of papers dealing with this topic is, so far, very reduced and, therefore, there is a need for addressing it, mostly because traditional transmittance-based IR techniques are suboptimal due to scattering caused by black carbon in tyres.

RESULTS

This study aims to evaluate the most appropriate infrared (IR) spectrometric technique for monitoring TWPs. Macro attenuated total reflectance (ATR), reflectance microscopy, and quantum cascade laser-based micro transflectance (QCL-LDIR) were employed to analyse samples from used car and truck tyres in two sample configurations: small tyre fragments (∼1 cm2) and TWPs (< 1 mm). ATR yielded well-defined spectra with good signal-to-noise ratios, allowing for a straightforward interpretation of the major functional moieties. Despite reflectance measurements on tyre fragments provided good results, those on TWPs offered limited information due to noise and scattering. Transflectance offered clear peaks and enhanced resolution in the fingerprint region -compared to the other techniques-, much faster analysis times and the ability to effectively measure particles down to 20-10 µm, thus, emerging as the most effective technique for TWPs analysis. However, spectral interpretation is not immediate. Further, a proof-of-concept chemometric study was done to evaluate whether the analytical techniques contain information to differentiate types of tyres. An unsupervised pattern recognition and a supervised classification technique (principal components analysis and classification trees, respectively) were used, which were able to differentiate among the tyres, notably the truck tyre from the cars tyres.

SIGNIFICANCE

The study presents first time the use of micro transflectance IR to study tyre particles down to 20 µm. Traditional total attenuated reflectance is demonstrated as a suitable way to analyse bigger microplastics. These two options open pathways to monitor this important emerging contaminant in environmental matrices.

Natural deep eutectic solvent-based liquid phase microextraction in a 3D-Printed millifluidic flow cell for the on-line determination of thiabendazole in juice samples

BACKGROUND

At present, 3D printing technology is becoming increasingly popular in analytical chemistry because it enables the rapid and cost-effective manufacture of sample preparation devices, particularly in flow-based operation, opening up new opportunities for the development of automated analytical methods. In parallel, the use of miniaturized methods and sustainable solvents in sample preparation is highly recommended. Accordingly, in this work, a 3D-printed millifluidic device was designed and used for the on-line natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES)-based liquid phase microextraction (LPME) coupled to a spectrofluorometer for, as a proof of concept, the determination of thiabendazole (TBZ) in fruit juice samples.

RESULTS

The millifluidic device was 3D printed by stereolithography and consisted of two patterned plates, each containing a millichannel (acceptor and donor channel). The millichannels were separated by a polypropylene membrane impregnated with optimal NADES, acting as a supported liquid membrane (SLM). Among the NADES investigated, formic acid:L-menthol (1:1 M ratio) was selected as the SLM, avoiding the use of conventional harmful organic solvents. The proposed millifluidic device was successfully applied to the determination of thiabendazole in fruit juice samples, achieving LOD and LOQ values of 0.45 μg L-1 and 1.42 μg L-1, respectively, which are well below the maximum residue levels (MRLs) set by the European Union. The greenness and applicability of the proposed analytical method were evaluated using the AGREEPrep, SPMS and BAGI tools and compared with other published methods. In general, the proposed method was superior to others, mainly due to its high sensitivity and high sample throughput.

SIGNIFICANCE

Several cells were easily designed with different channel geometries (length and depth) to find the optimal dimensions, and then 3D printed and tested in a relatively fast, cheap and simple way, demonstrating the suitability of 3D printing in the fabrication of millifluidic devices as an alternative to traditional fabrication techniques. In addition, the proposed approach is fully compatible with new sustainable solvents, facilitating the development of green sample preparation methods.

Recent Advances in Bioanalysis of Cephalosporins Toward Green Sample Preparation

This review highlights recent advances in the bioanalysis of cephalosporins using liquid chromatographic methods, focusing on green sample preparation (GSP) techniques. Cephalosporins, a class of β-lactam antibiotics, are critical in combating bacterial infections but present challenges related to drug resistance and toxicity. This article evaluates various sample preparation methods, including solid-phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, and protein precipitation, which have been employed in the extraction and quantification of cephalosporins from biological matrices. Special attention is given to the optimization of critical parameters, such as pH, extraction solvents, and purification techniques to maximize analytes' recovery and sensitivity. Emerging trends in GSP, such as the use of molecularly imprinted polymers and miniaturized processing devices, are also discussed. The review underscores the growing importance of integrating environmentally friendly approaches in cephalosporin bioanalysis, paving the way for future innovations in bioanalytical research.

Development of a Catalyst-Free Ultrasound-Assisted Derivatization Method for Detection of Valproic Acid in Epilepsy Patient's Serum Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography: A Comparison With Chemiluminescence Immunoassay

The aim of this research was the therapeutic drug monitoring for valproic acid in epilepsy patient's serum samples by the common, sensitive, and accessible HPLC-UV method. Because of the absence of a suitable chromophore in the valproic acid structure, a facile, selective, and cost-effective pre-column derivatization was designed. This catalyst-free ultrasound-assisted derivatization assay can accomplish the derivatization very quickly only in 5.0 min and at a mild temperature of 60°C. 2,4'-Dibromoacetophenone and nonanoic acid was used as derivatizing agent and internal standard, respectively. The effect of sample pH, buffer concentration, ultrasound exposure time, reaction temperature, and derivatizing agent amount were optimized. The proposed method exhibited a good linear range of 5.0-300.0 µg/mL with acceptable correlation coefficients of 0.9981. The limit of detection was as low as 0.4 µg/mL. Also, the limit of quantification was reported as 1.3 µg/mL. Interday and intraday relative standard deviations (n = 10) were 1.1% and 0.3%-7.0%, respectively. In addition, the relative recovery ranged from 100.3% to 107.7%. The measurement of valproic acid was performed in the presence of several epilepsy and non-epilepsy drugs by the developed protocol. This confirmed the specific and accurate determination of valproic acid in the patient's serum. A comparative evaluation was employed against the precise chemiluminescence immunoassay approach. The correlation coefficient between the two methods was 0.9992, which demonstrated the results were statistically the same.

Food profiling goes green: Sustainable analysis strategies for food authentication

Omics technologies, such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, isotopolomics, and metallomics, are important tools for analytical verification of food authenticity. However, in many cases, their application requires the use of high-resolution technological platforms as well as careful consideration of sample collection, storage, preparation and, in particular, extraction. In this overview, the individual steps and disciplines are explained against the background of the term "Green Chemistry," and the various instrumental procedures for the respective omics disciplines are discussed. Furthermore, new approaches and developments are presented on how such analyses can be made sustainable in the future.

Green extraction using natural deep eutectic solvents for determination of As, Cd, and Pb in plant and food matrices by ICP-MS

In this study, extraction methods using natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) were proposed for the determination of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in plant and food matrices. NADES are green and sustainable solvents with advantageous chemical properties for such applications. The NADES were prepared with different components, characterized, and applied in ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) methods. Experimental variables including temperature, extraction time, and sample-solvent ratio, were investigated using experimental designs to establish the optimal extraction conditions before analysis by ICP-MS. For the MAE method, the optimal conditions were extraction temperature of 100 °C, extraction time of 40 min, and SSR of 40:1 m v-1, resulting in recoveries of up to 84 %. For the UAE method, the optimal conditions were 40 °C, 40 min, and sample-solvent ratio (SSR) of 30:1 m v-1, with recoveries ranging from 96 % to 109 %, all with relative standard deviations less than 11 %. The proposed methods provided low detection limits (mg kg-1), with values of <0.0160 for As, <0.0030 for Cd, and < 0.0090 for Pb for UAE and MAE. The methods were considered green, achieving scores of 0.54 (MAE) and 0.45 (UAE) on the analytical greenness metric for sample preparation. The use of NADES as efficient extractants, combined with multivariate optimization, resulted in optimal experimental conditions, good analytical performance, and enhanced sustainability. The proposed method is a promising approach for applications in food safety and public health studies.

Why nothing beats NIRS technology: The green analytical choice for the future sustainable food production

In this perspective paper we argue for the fact that near infrared (NIR) technology, due to its unique properties, will become an indispensable green sensor technology in the future digitalized and sustainable food production. The future of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in green analytics is bright. Ongoing advancements in NIR technology, coupled with increased accessibility and integration with advanced multivariate data analysis such as machine learning and artificial intelligence will further amplify the impact of NIRS across food, agricultural, environmental, and renewable energy domains. The miniaturization, increased portability, and enhanced affordability of NIR instruments, coupled with its integration into emerging technologies, will empower a diverse range of industries and researchers to address pressing global challenges with unprecedented precision and efficiency. The implementation of NIR technology in process analytical technology will enable the transition to future digitalized and sustainable food production. In a future circular economy, where waste streams, co-products and water are reclaimed and valorized, continuous measurements are necessary and in many cases, there are no sensor alternatives to NIR technology.

Introduction of a small volume ethyl acetate based liquid-liquid extraction procedure for analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in wastewater by atmospheric pressure gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and evaluation of method greenness

The Small Volume Ethyl Acetate based Liquid-Liquid Extraction (SVEA-LLE) method, using Atmospheric Pressure Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (APGC-MS/MS) with Dual Head Robotic Tool Change (DH-RTC) Prep and Load (PAL) autosampler, was evaluated for the analysis of 17 PAHs in water and wastewater. The extraction method was first evaluated for extraction efficiency with respect to time using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the effect of acidification. Method validation was performed as per SANTE/11312/2021 v2 2024 for analysis of PAHs in wastewater. Linearity was determined over a range of 5 to 80 ng/ml, meeting the acceptable coefficient of determination (r2) and the values of % deviation from back-calculated concentration. The method was observed to be sensitive enough, as the estimated Limits of Detection (LOD) and Quantification (LOQ) were observed to be lower than or close to the Limits specified in EPA 625.1/2016 method, without the need for evaporative concentration. During the method validation trials, it was observed that 82.71 % of the observations were below 10 % RSD, 14.19 % were in the range of 10 % to 15 % RSD, and 3.08 % were between 15 % and 20 % RSD (n = 6). Similarly, in the case of mean % recovery, 92.59 % of the observations were between 80 to 120 % recovery, 3.70 % of the observations were between 70 to 80 % recovery, 3.08 % of the observations were 120 to 130 % recovery (n = 6). It was observed that mean % recovery of robustness study (n = 18) ranged from 90.21 to 117.82 (observed for phenanthrene and benzo (a) pyrene respectively). Further, the % RSD from robustness study ranged between 5.11 to 18.98 (observed for acenaphthylene and pyrene respectively). Measurement Uncertainty of all the analytes ranged from 3.73 to 8.92 % (observed for fluorene and pyrene, respectively). The method described has been observed to be fit for purpose, as it meets the method validation requirements with acceptable results in PT participation. The greenness assessment of the method using tools like the Analytical Eco-Scale (AES) and the Green Analytical Procedure Index (GAPI) indicated that method ranks excellent in greenness evaluation and is eco-friendly. The optimized sample preparation method is short, safe, and easy with an extract suitable for direct injection onto GC column, eliminating the concentration and reconstitution steps for high-throughput analysis of PAHs in water and wastewater.

1-(o-Tolyl)thiourea-based deep eutectic solvent as a stationary phase in flow injection analysis system for mercury and copper determination in edible oils

In this work, a novel deep eutectic solvent (DES) composed of thymol and 1-(o Tolyl)thiourea 9/1 (mol) is presented for the first time. This DES has not been described in the literature. This DES was first used as a stationary phase in an extraction column integrated into a flow injection analysis system for the simultaneous determination of mercury and copper in edible oils. The automated approach involves passing an aqueous sample solution obtained after microwave mineralization through a microcolumn of DES retained on polytetrafluoroethylene. This leading to the extraction and concentration of the analytes. The metals are then eluted with an aqueous thiourea solution for subsequent analysis by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. The limits of detection (LODs) for mercury and copper were 3 μg L⁻1 and 2.5 μg L⁻1, respectively. The approach demonstrated high accuracy. Relative standard deviations (RSD) for repeatability and inter-day reproducibility ranged from 3 % to 11 %. Extraction recovery of both metals exceeded 95 %, indicating the high efficiency of the DES-based extraction process. Environmental assessment using the AGREEprep method yielded a favorable environmental index of 0.54, highlighting the robustness of the approach. This novel use of DES as a stationary phase in flow injection analysis system provides a robust, efficient and environmentally friendly approach to the determination of trace metals in edible oils. This method can also be applied to the analysis of other samples.

Rapid identification and on-site analysis by miniature mass spectrometry of chemical markers for fragrant rosewood authentication

Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen (Dalbergiae Odoriferae Lignum, DOL), renowned for its therapeutic applications in traditional Chinese medicine and its value in crafting luxury items, faces challenges due to the slow heartwood formation process and subsequent market adulteration. The proliferation of counterfeit products necessitates reliable methods for rapid, on-site authentication. This study aims to establish a rapid, green, and on-site method to identify the authenticity of DOL. A comprehensive analysis was conducted on 10 batches of DOL samples sourced from diverse locations, utilizing a miniature mass spectrometer (mini MS) equipped with a paper capillary spray (PCS) technique. Multivariate statistical approaches were employed to classify the samples and pinpoint chemical markers indicative of authenticity. Subsequent MS-guided separation and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) verified the markers' validity and assessed the greenness profile by Analytical Eco-scale (AES), Green Analytical Procedure Index (GAPI), and Analytical GREEnness (AGREE). A total of 10 batches of DOL samples detected by PCS-mini MS were classified into authentic and counterfeit, by unsupervised cluster analysis. Sativanone (m/z 301.1, VIP=6.0, p=0.000001) and 3'-O-methylviolanone (m/z 331.1, VIP=3.2, p=0.000382) were regarded as the chemical markers for the rapid identification of DOL. The results of the TLC method were consistent with this method, and the new method is greener. The application of mini MS for on-site authentication of DOL via specific chemical markers offers significant advantages, including operational simplicity, high efficiency, greenness, and accuracy. The deployment of this strategy promises to facilitate the effective regulation of DOL, ensuring authenticity and quality.

Boosting miniaturization in clinical analysis: determination of bisphenols in human serum and urine by miniaturized stir bar sorptive dispersive microextraction

In this work, a miniaturized and sustainable method for the determination of endocrine-disrupting bisphenols in human serum and urine employing the miniaturized stir bar sorptive dispersive microextraction (mSBSDME) approach has been developed. As bisphenols are conjugated in the human body to their glucorinated and sulfated forms, an enzymolysis employing a commercial mixture of β-glucuronidase and arylsulfatase was carried out prior to the microextraction procedure to determine their total content. A magnetic covalent organic framework (COF) was employed as the sorbent to carry out the extraction of the analytes from the biological matrixes, showing good extraction performance due to its hydrophobic, π-π, and dipole-dipole interactions with the analytes. As instrumental detection, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was employed to achieve good sensitivity and selectivity. The method was validated for both matrixes, showing good linearity at least up to 100 ng mL-1, limits of detection in the low ng mL-1 range, good precision values (relative standard deviations below 15%), and good accuracy (relative recoveries between 80 and 127%). In order to show the applicability of the developed method, five samples from female volunteers were analyzed with the final aim of offering a practical tool for monitoring the female population's exposure to these highly endocrine-disrupting compounds. This new procedure enhances the implementation of miniaturized sample preparation approaches in biological samples for clinical analysis, giving special relevance to the sustainability of the method.

Green chemistry: magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction for simultaneous enrichment and determination of V, Ni, Ti and Ga in water samples by HR-CS ETAAS

This work presents a straightforward, highly sensitive, and cost-effective method for the simultaneous determination of V, Ti, Ni and Ga by high resolution-continuum source electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer (HR-CS ETAAS) in aqueous environmental samples (tap and seawater samples). The system is based on retention of the analyte onto a novel magnetic nanomaterial (M@GO magnetic graphene oxide) functionalised with methylthiosalicilate (MTS). The formed complexes between the M@GO-MTS and the target analytes were broken, adding 1 mL of nitric acid (6%) and sonication for 5 min. The optimized method achieved detection limits of 0.71 μg L-1 for Ti, 0.20 μg L-1 for V, 0.04 μg L-1 for Ga, 0.66 μg L-1 for Ni. The accuracy of the proposed method was demonstrated by analysing two certified reference materials and by determining the analyte content in spiked environmental water samples. The results obtained using this method were in good agreement with the certified values of the standard reference materials, and the recoveries for the spiked tap water and seawater samples ranged from 94% to 120%.

Deep learning-assisted detection of psychoactive water pollutants using behavioral profiling of zebrafish embryos

Water pollution poses a significant risk to the environment and human health, necessitating the development of innovative detection methods. In this study, a series of representative psychoactive compounds were selected as model pollutants, and a new approach combining zebrafish embryo behavioral phenotyping with deep learning was used to identify and classify water pollutants. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to 17 psychoactive compounds at environmentally relevant concentrations (1 and 10 μg/L), and their locomotor behavior was recorded at 5 and 6 days post-fertilization (dpf). We constructed six distinct zebrafish locomotor track datasets encompassing various observation times and developmental stages and evaluated multiple deep learning models on these datasets. The results demonstrated that the ResNet101 model performed optimally on the 1-min track dataset at 6 dpf, achieving an accuracy of 65.35 %. Interpretability analyses revealed that the model effectively focused on the relevant locomotor track features for classification. These findings suggest that the integration of zebrafish embryo behavioral analysis with deep learning can serve as an environmentally friendly and economical method for detecting water pollutants. This approach offers a new perspective for water quality monitoring and has the potential to assist existing chemical analytical techniques in detection, thereby advancing environmental toxicology research and water pollution control efforts.

A novel approach based on supramolecular solvents microextraction for quick detection of perfluoroalkyl acids and their precursors in aquatic food

Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have garnered significant attention owing to their prevalence and adverse effects on humans. The direct dietary intake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and PFAAs precursors (pre-PFAAs) biotransformation are considered major contributors to human exposure to PFASs. However, little information is available on analytical methods for the simultaneous detection of PFAAs and pre-PFAAs. In the present study, a single-step sample-treatment-based supramolecular solvents-dispersed liquid-liquid microextraction (SUPRASs-DLLME) technique was established for the analysis of 16 PFAAs and 7 pre-PFAAs in aquatic food. SUPRASs were synthesized using 1-heptanol (3 mL) and tetrahydrofuran (4 mL), which were self-assembled in water. The parameters for microextraction, such as extraction method and enrichment capacity, were optimized. Under the optimum conditions, the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 0.03-0.15 ng·g-1 and 0.1-0.5 ng·g-1, respectively. Good linearities (R2 > 0.996) were obtained for all the target compounds, and the recoveries ranged 81.1-120 % with relative standard deviations (RSDs) lower than 20 %. This method was applied to the analysis of 16 PFAAs and 7 pre-PFAAs in aquatic food samples (crabs, prawns, and fish). This study provides a new idea for analyzing other pollutants in biological samples.

Application of static headspace GC-MS for detection of residual trichloroethylene and toluene solvents in β-cyclodextrin

Trichloroethylene (TCE) and toluene (TOL), which have been used for β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) synthesis, need to be properly inspected for quality assurance and safety of food additives. In this study, a combination of static headspace separation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SH-GC-MS) was optimized for detecting those residual solvents in β-CD in the compatible safe and green chemistry. Sample injection amount for SH was determined to 100 μL with the minimum volume that provides the suitable accuracy. For the safety and accuracy of analysis, equilibrium conditions of solvents were considered and selected to 60°C for 45 min. Also, we found that the addition of salt, like CaCl2, adversely affected recovery efficiency. Under the proposed condition, coefficients of determination (R2) of both TCE and TOL were more than 0.99 between 0.05-10 mg/L concentrations. Recovery rates and relative standard deviation (RSD) of tested solvents were between 91.7-106.0% and 1.0-8.9%, respectively. From validation with two commercial β-CDs, both TCE and TOL presented lower than regulatory limits for food additives (1 ppm) with satisfactory RSDs (<20%). Collectively, the proposed analytical methods can contribute to safer, simpler, and greener inspection of residual chemicals present in foods for public health.

Development of a green-synthesized molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical nanosensor for the determination of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in serum and tap water

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) was determined using a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-based electrochemical sensor. Green-synthesized silver nanoparticles were functionalized with cysteamine to enhance their integration into the electrode surface, which was used to modify a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). Furthermore, a MIP-based electrochemical sensor was constructed via electropolymerization of 3-aminophenyl boronic acid (3-APBA) as a conjugated functional monomer in the presence of lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) solution as a dopant, chitosan as a carrier natural polymer, and NDMA as a template/target molecule. The polymer film was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The analytical performance of the silver nanomaterial-based MIP-based electrochemical (AgNPs@Chitosan/3-APBA@MIP-GCE) sensor was evaluated under optimized conditions. The linear range of NDMA was 1.0 × 10-13-1.0 × 10-12 M (0.1-1.0 pM), with a limit of detection (LOD) of 3.63 × 10-15 M (3.63 fM) using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). Method validation figured out that the developed MIP-based electrochemical nanosensor exhibited excellent selectivity, accuracy, and precision, which was shown by the analysis of synthetic serum samples and tap water. The LOD and LOQ in serum samples were 17.8 fM and 59.5 fM, respectively, which were in agreement with the developed method. Good recovery results confirm the successful application of the method in serum and tap water samples. The selectivity of the developed AgNPs@Chitosan/3-APBA@MIP-GCE sensor for NDMA was demonstrated in the presence of NDEA, sartans (valsartan, losartan, irbesartan, candesartan, telmisartan), and potential interferents that are possibly present in biological fluids (dopamine, ascorbic acid, uric acid) besides ionic species (sodium, chloride, potassium, nitrate, magnesium, sulfate) and common analgesic paracetamol.

Enhancing Doxorubicin Detection: Multiphase Electroextraction for Efficient and Affordable UHPLC-DAD Analysis in Saliva

Attesting optimal drug concentrations in biological fluids is crucial to ensure precise dosage adjustment, to guarantee therapy adherence, and to manage side effects in chemotherapy. Accurate drug determination relies on liquid chromatography and advanced detectors, with sample preparation playing a pivotal role, especially in complex matrices such as biological fluids. This study introduces a multiphase electroextraction (MPEE) of doxorubicin (DOX) in saliva by utilizing a paper point, followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection. The extraction time and electric potential were carried out by using the Doehlert optimization approach, whereas the desorption solvent was fine-tuned through the centroid-simplex experimental design. After optimization, DOX and the internal standard were extracted in 35 min, utilizing an applied voltage of 300 V and a multiwell plate capable of simultaneous extraction of 66 samples. The recovery was 87%-101%, with a linear range between 50 and 500 µg L-1 (R2 > 0.999). The intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation for precision were <10%, and the limit of detection and limit of quantification were 25 and 50 µg L-¹, respectively. When applied to five different fortified saliva samples, there were no statistically significant differences in the detected concentrations. Although the enrichment factor (0.6) was not as high as expected, the other results confirm that the method obtained is suitable for monitoring DOX in this complex matrix and can contribute to further developments in sample preparation using MPEE approaches.

A 96-position platform for magnetic sorbent-based dispersive microextraction: Application to the determination of tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol in saliva of cannabis smokers

BACKGROUND

In order to obtain sustainable analytical methods, it is essential to develop kinetically efficient sample preparation strategies in which equilibria are reached faster, as dispersive extraction techniques. In addition, the higher the reduction in size, the higher number of extraction vessels can be located and thus the higher number of samples can be simultaneously treated. All this increases sample throughput, and contributes to the reduction of chemical waste, and energy and sample consumption. In this sense, multiposition extraction platforms are smart strategies to achieve these goals, but they are scarcely developed for dispersive extraction techniques.

RESULTS

Taking miniaturized stir bar sorptive dispersive microextraction (mSBSDME) as a starting point, a 96-position extraction platform has been developed using a 96-position stirring plate and a tailor-designed 3D-printed support for locating the miniaturized extraction vessels, achieving a high-throughput miniaturized sample preparation strategy. In order to show the applicability of this novel platform, the determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in human saliva has been carried out and applied to samples collected after the consumption of marijuana and legal CBD-rich cannabis. Only 100 μL of saliva were needed for the analysis and good analytical features in terms of linearity (at least up to 500 ng mL-1), limits of detection (0.7 and 2.8 ng mL-1 for THC and CBD, respectively), and precision (RSD ≤ 14 %) were achieved.

SIGNIFICANCE

The miniaturization of the vessel allows the use of small volumes of sample (i.e., a few microliters) and the treatment of 96 samples in parallel, being the first proposal for carrying out dispersive sorbent-based microextraction under the concept of 96-well format. Additionally, this new workflow contributes to the development of analytical methods that meet the three pillars of sustainability, i.e., greenness and easily affordable in terms of economics and applicability.

Bubble-Assisted Sample Preparation Techniques for Mass Spectrometry

This review delves into the efficacy of utilizing bubbles to extract analytes into the gas phase, offering a faster and greener alternative to traditional sample preparation methods for mass spectrometry. Generating numerous bubbles in liquids rapidly transfers volatile and surface-active species to the gas phase. Recently, effervescence has found application in chemical laboratories for swiftly extracting volatile organic compounds, facilitating instantaneous analysis. In the so-called fizzy extraction, liquid matrices are pressurized with gas and then subjected to sudden decompression to induce effervescence. Alternatively, specifically designed effervescent tablets are introduced into the liquid samples. In situ bubble generation has also enhanced dispersion of extractant in microextraction techniques. Furthermore, droplets from bursting bubbles are collected to analyze non-volatile species. Various methods exist to induce bubbling for sample preparation. The polydispersity of generated bubbles and the limited control of bubble size pose critical challenges in the stability of the bubble-liquid interface and the ability to quantify analytes using bubble-based sample preparation techniques. This review covers different bubble-assisted sample preparation methods and gives practical guidance on their implementation in mass spectrometry workflows. Traditional, offline, and online approaches for sample preparation relying on bubbles are discussed. Unconventional bubbling techniques for sample preparation are also covered.

CE-UV method for the determination of catecholamine metabolites from baby pee-covered diapers

A method has been developed for the analysis of vanillylmandelic acid, homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid from baby urine as biomarkers of neuroblastoma in infants. Disposable diapers were employed as sampling devices in order to guarantee a low invasiveness during this step. The proposed method consists on a simple extraction step with water from the used diaper followed by the measurement using capillary electrophoresis with UV detection. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to optimize the process of extracting catecholamine metabolites from the examined samples. The variables of the sample preparation step were optimized and the method was validated obtaining limits of quantification of 1.65 μg mL-1, good intraday and inter-day precision with RSDs under 15 %. Finally the method was applied to real samples collected from the Department of Neonatology, University Clinical Centre (Gdańsk, Poland). The greenness of the proposed method was also evaluated with different tools (i.e., AGREEPrep and GAPI) with satisfactory results, which allow to state that the method can be considered green. Moreover, its practicality was evaluated by application of BAGI tool, proving to be a practical and economical method to be applied in routine laboratories for determination of catecholamine metabolites in urine-type samples.

Evaluating BTEX in vehicle exhaust gas: A fast and efficient approach using SPME and GC-BID

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and the xylene isomers (m, p, and o-xylene) (BTEX) are known for their harmful effects on human health and have been extensively studied across various environmental matrices. However, quantifying BTEX in exhaust gases poses challenges due to the complexity of the matrices. In this study, we investigated a method development strategy involving solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography coupled with a dielectric barrier discharge ionization Detector (BID) for quantifying BTEX emitted from internal combustion engines operating at idle. Sampling was conducted using 1.0 L Tedlar bags, followed by withdrawal of aliquots and dilution with atmospheric air using a novel device (graduated vial) designed for gaseous samples. The SPME-GC-BID method was developed and validated for the conditions: BTEX extraction in CAR/PDMS 75 μm fiber at a contact time of 5.0 min at a temperature of 27 °C, followed by GC-BID analysis. Method validation to ensure the reliability of quantitative results used the merit figures e.g., limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), precision, and accuracy (recovery). LOD varied from 0.194 to 0.340 mg m-3, LOQ varied from 0.587 to 1.03 mg m-3, precision ranged from 1.47 to 7.14 %, and recovery varied from 82.34 to 109.5 %. BTEX concentration in vehicle exhaust varied from 3.40 to 16.4 mg m-3. The results showed, concerning the figures of merit analyzed, that the SPME-GC-BID method provides good sensibility, precision, and accuracy for evaluating the presence of BTEX in the exhaust of internal combustion engines, contributing to the understanding of health risks associated with vehicle emissions.

Evaluating the Greenness of Wine Analytical Chemistry: A New Metric Approach

While the wine industry has already adopted some sustainable and environmentally friendly practices, special attention should be paid to the greenness of the analytical methodologies used. In this study, a new tool called "Green Wine Analytical Procedure Evaluation" (GWAPE) was developed to fulfill these "green" requirements. This framework offers a structured approach to evaluating the environmental impact of wine analysis processes, covering all the analytical steps from sample collection to the final results. GWAPE provides quantitative information, uses schematic representations, assigns varying levels of importance to green chemistry principles, and conducts detailed evaluations of hazard structures. Since wine analytical methods typically involve fewer highly hazardous reagents, certain criteria previously applied in green analytical chemistry should be integrated or omitted. In summary, GWAPE offers a customized and precise solution to help the laboratories of enology and the wineries assess their analytical methodologies' environmental impact. As an example of application, the proposed metric was used to evaluate the greenness of three different standard analytical methodologies to determine sugars in wine, showing good discrimination ability.

Green analytical chemistry metrics for evaluating the greenness of analytical procedures

Green analytical chemistry (GAC) focuses on mitigating the adverse effects of analytical activities on human safety, human health, and environment. In addition to the 12 principles of GAC, proper GAC tools should be developed and employed to assess the greenness of different analytical assays. The 15 widely used GAC metrics, i.e., national environmental methods index (NEMI), advanced NEMI, assessment of green profile (AGP), chloroform-oriented toxicity estimation scale (ChlorTox Scale), Analytical Eco-Scale, Green Certificate Modified Eco-Scale, analytical method greenness score (AMGS), green analytical procedure index (GAPI), ComplexGAPI, red-green-blue (RGB) additive color model, RGB 12 algorithm, analytical greenness calculator (AGREE), AGREE preparation (AGREEprep), HEXAGON, and blue applicability grade index (BAGI), are selected as the typical tools. This article comprehensively presents and elucidates the principles, characteristics, merits, and demerits of 15 widely used GAC tools. This review is helpful for researchers to use the current GAC metrics to assess the environmental sustainability of analytical assays.

Direct aqueous injection LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis for the determination of 23 EU watch list substances in whole water samples

The Watch List (WL) monitoring program in the European Union (EU) aims to identify and prioritize emerging pollutants in the aquatic environment that may pose risks to human health and the environment. Thus, reliable methods are needed to determine these substances. This study presents the development of a simple, fast, and green method for analysing 23 WL substances (4 antibiotics, 9 azole compounds, 6 other pesticides, and 4 sunscreens), covering a range of medium to very low polarity (log Kow 2.2-6.9), in whole environmental water samples using direct aqueous injection (DAI) in combination with liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). To process the samples, 0.5 mL of acetonitrile is added to 1 mL of raw water, followed by brief shaking. The mixture is then centrifuged to remove sedimented suspended solids before being injected into the LC instrument. A rigorous analytical greenness metric for sample preparation (AGREEprep) assigned this procedure a green score of 0.61. The method showed satisfactory performance characteristics for all analytes under investigation, including limits of quantification meeting the WL requirements, recoveries in the range of 79-120%, and intra-day precision with relative standard deviations in the range of 1.9-20%. The method is suitable for screening and monitoring purposes, as confirmed by the analysis of real samples.