Recent Developments in the Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Disulfanes (Disulfides). A Review

Mild and Effective Method for the Nickel-Catalyzed Arylation of Glycosyl Thiols in Aqueous Surfactant Solution

Aryl thioglycosides have broad applicability as both glycosyl donors and glycomimetic compounds. Their synthesis via the cross-coupling of glycosyl thiols with aryl halides has become a popular method for their construction because it allows better selectivity for anomeric configuration as well as a wider functional group tolerance compared to traditional methods. Herein, we report a nickel-catalyzed method for the synthesis of aryl thioglycosides which utilizes an aqueous micellar environment as the reaction medium. This alternative method allows for mild conditions while circumventing expensive palladium, leading to the successful synthesis of over 30 aryl thioglycosides, including challenging 1,2-cis thioglycoside products.

Bilateral Unsymmetrical Disulfurating Reagent Design for Polysulfide Construction

Polysulfides are significant compounds in life science, pharmaceutical science, and materials science. Therefore, polysulfide construction is in great demand. The controllable sequential installation of groups on both ends of a S-S motif faces an enormous challenge owing to the reversible nature of the covalent S-S bond. A library was established with two divergent mask groups for bilateral unsymmetrical disulfurating reagents (R1O-SS-SO2R2). Sequential coupling with preferential activation of the S-SO2 bond (37.6 kcal/mol) and controllable activation of the S-O bond (54.8 kcal/mol) in the presence of the S-S bond (62.0 kcal/mol) enabled successive reactions at each end of the S-S motif to afford unsymmetrical disulfides and trisulfides, even for the cross-linkage of natural products, pharmaceuticals, peptides, and a protein (bovine serum albumin).

Nickel-catalyzed selective disulfide formation by reductive cross-coupling of thiosulfonates

Developing innovative methodologies for disulfide preparation is of importance in contemporary organic chemistry. Despite significant advancements in nickel-catalyzed reductive cross-coupling reactions for forming carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds, the synthesis of S-S bonds remains a considerable challenge. In this context, we present a novel approach utilizing nickel catalysts for the reductive cross-coupling of thiosulfonates. This method operates under mild conditions, offering a convenient and efficient pathway to synthesize a wide range of both symmetrical and unsymmetrical disulfides from readily available, bench-stable thiosulfonates with exceptional selectivity. Notably, this approach is highly versatile, allowing for the late-stage modification of pharmaceuticals and the preparation of various targeted compounds. A comprehensive mechanistic investigation has been conducted to substantiate the proposed hypothesis.

Photo-induced decarboxylative C-S bond formation to access sterically hindered unsymmetric S-alkyl thiosulfonates and SS-alkyl thiosulfonates

Due to the high reactivity and versatility of benzenesulfonothioates, significant advancements have been made in constructing C-S bonds. However, there are certain limitations in the synthesis of S-thiosulfonates and SS-thiosulfonates, especially when dealing with substantial steric hindrance, which poses a significant challenge. Herein, we present an innovative approach for assembling unsymmetric S-thiosulfonates and unsymmetric SS-thiosulfonates through the integration of dual copper/photoredox catalysis. Moreover, we also realized the one-pot strategy by directly using carboxylic acids as raw materials by in-situ activation of them to access S-thiosulfonates and SS-thiosulfonates without further purification and presynthesis of NHPI esters. The envisaged synthesis and utilization of these reagents are poised to pioneer an innovative pathway for fabricating a versatile spectrum of mono-, di-, and polysulfide compounds. Furthermore, they introduce a class of potent sulfenylating reagents, empowering the synthesis of intricate unsymmetrical disulfides that were previously challenging to access.

A Recyclable Inorganic Lanthanide Cluster Catalyst for Chemoselective Aerobic Oxidation of Thiols

Optimizing lanthanide catalyst performance with organic ligands often encounters significant challenges, including susceptibility to water or oxygen and complex synthesis pathways. To address these issues, our research focuses on developing inorganic lanthanide clusters with enhanced stability and functionality. In this study, we introduce the [Sm6O(OH)8(H2O)24]I8(H2O)8 cluster (Sm-OC) as a sustainable and efficient catalyst for the aerobic oxidation of thiols under heating conditions. The Sm-OC catalyst demonstrated remarkable stability, outstanding recyclability, and excellent chemoselectivity across a diverse range of functional groups in 38 different tests. Notably, it enables efficient unsymmetrical disulfide synthesis and prevents the formation of over-oxidized by-products, highlighting its superior performance. This Sm-OC catalyst provides a practical and robust tool for the precise construction of versatile disulfides, thus establishing a template for the broader use of lanthanide clusters in organic synthesis.

Solvent-Free Reaction for Unsymmetrical Organodisulfides with High Purity and Application as Cathode-Active Materials

Unsymmetrical disulfides, in which different organic groups are bonded to disulfide bonds, have been synthesized by cross-coupling reactions using thiols as substrates. However, due to the low-binding energy of unsymmetrical disulfides, its disproportionation occurs based on the side reactions with nucleophilic thiols, resulting in the impurity of symmetric disulfides. In this study, we developed a solvent-free synthesis method for unsymmetrical disulfides using thiosulfonates, thiols, and a base. This synthetic method enabled us to obtain highly pure diaryl-substituted unsymmetrical disulfides with particularly low-binding energy without control over the nucleophilicity and elimination properties of the substrate. Furthermore, it was observed that the disproportionation of unsymmetrical disulfides occurred in the solvent. This means that solvent-free condition is one of the factors to obtain unsymmetrical disulfides. As a new application of unsymmetrical disulfides, we applied unsymmetrical disulfides to cathode active materials of lithium batteries based on the reversible multi-electron redox activity of S-S bonds. The batteries using unsymmetrical disulfide cathode-active materials with a carbon nanotube exhibited initial capacities of 127 and 158 Ah/kg, equal to 42 and 53% of their theoretical ones. We demonstrated that unsymmetrical disulfides could be used as cathode-active materials for rechargeable batteries.

New syntheses of thiosaccharides utilizing substitution reactions

Novel synthetic methods published since 2005 affording carbohydrates containing sulfur atom(s) are reviewed. The review is divided to subchapters based on the position of sulfur atom(s) in the sugar molecule. Only those methods that take advantage of substitution are discussed.

LiBr-Catalyzed C3-Disulfuration between Indole and N-Dithiophthalimide

A simple, green halide-catalyzed protocol for disulfuration of indole derivatives with N-dithiophthalimides has been developed. This C-H disulfide reaction proceeded smoothly at room temperature with economical LiBr as catalyst, providing an effective method for the synthesis of novel unsymmetrical disulfides. A series of 3-dithioindole derivatives were obtained in high yields with good functional group tolerance; moreover, the wide scope of Harpp reagents (aryl, benzyl, primary, secondary, tertiary) confirmed the practicability of this approach.

Practical synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides promoted by bromodimethylsulfonium bromide

Oxidative cross-coupling of two thiols is the most direct tool for the synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides and highly desirable across academia and industry. However, the inevitable formation of significant amounts of the corresponding symmetrical by-products is a major issue. We herein present a method toward the synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides in which the homo-coupling of the thiols is effectively inhibited by adding the two thiols sequentially, taking advantage of rapid oxidation of the thiol by bromodimethylsulfonium bromide.

Synthesis of N-acyl sulfenamides via copper catalysis and their use as S-sulfenylating reagents of thiols

Sulfur-heteroatom bonds such as S-S and S-N are found in a variety of natural products and often play important roles in biological processes. Despite their widespread applications, the synthesis of sulfenamides, which feature S-N bonds that may be cleaved under mild conditions, remains underdeveloped. Here, we report a method for synthesis of N-acyl sulfenamides via copper-catalyzed nitrene-mediated S-amidation reaction of thiols with dioxazolones. This method is efficient, convenient, and broadly applicable. Moreover, the resulting N-acetyl sulfenamides are highly effective S-sulfenylation reagents for the synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides under mild conditions. The S-sulfenylation protocol enables facile access to sterically demanding disulfides that are difficult to synthesize by other means.

PdCl2/DMSO-Catalyzed Thiol-Disulfide Exchange: Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Disulfide

Unsymmetrical disulfides have been effectively prepared through thiol exchange with symmetrical disulfides employing a simple PdCl₂/DMSO catalytic system. The given method features excellent functional group tolerance, a broad substrate scope, and operational simplicity. This reaction is especially useful for late-stage functionalization of bioactive scaffolds such as peptides and pharmaceuticals. Disulfide-containing organic dyes have also been prepared. This transformation could be extended to thiol-diselenide or thiol-ditelluride exchange affording RS-SeR' or RS-TeR'.

Convenient Synthesis of Functionalized Unsymmetrical Vinyl Disulfides and Their Inverse Electron-Demand Hetero-Diels-Alder Reaction

The simple, convenient, and efficient methods for the preparation of unsymmetrical vinyl disulfides with additional functional groups under mild conditions with moderate to high yields were designed. The developed methods include the reaction of S-vinyl phosphorodithioate with thiotosylates or S-vinyl thiotosylate with thiols. The designed methods allow for the synthesis of unsymmetrical vinyl disulfides with additional functionalities such as hydroxy, carboxy, protected amino, or ester groups. Vinyl disulfides reacted with the generated transient o-iminothioquinones in an inverse electron-demand [4+2] cycloaddition to produce benzo[b][1,4]thiazine derivatives.

Glycosyl disulfides: importance, synthesis and application to chemical and biological systems

This review explores methodologies for the preparation of glycosyl disulfides, their utility as intermediates in carbohydrate synthesis, and evaluates their biological impact in glycoscience and beyond.

Phototropin-Inspired Chemoselective Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Disulfides: Aerobic Oxidative Heterocoupling of Thiols Using Flavin Photocatalysis

Inspired by the photochemical mechanism of a plant blue-light receptor, a unique flavin-based photocatalytic system was developed for the chemoselective heterocoupling of two different thiols, which enabled the facile synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides. Owing to the redox- and photo-organocatalysis of flavin, the coupling reaction took place under mild metal-free conditions and visible light irradiation with the use of air, which is recognized as the ideal green oxidant.

Decarboxylative thiolation of redox-active esters to free thiols and further diversification

Thiols are important precursors for the synthesis of a variety of pharmaceutically important sulfur-containing compounds. In view of the versatile reactivity of free thiols, here we report the development of a visible light-mediated direct decarboxylative thiolation reaction of alkyl redox-active esters to free thiols based on the abundant carboxylic acid feedstock. This transformation is applicable to various carboxylic acids, including primary, secondary, and tertiary acids as well as natural products and drugs, forging a general and facile access to free thiols with diverse structures. Moreover, the direct access to free thiols affords an advantage of rapid in situ diversification with high efficiency to other important thiol derivatives such as sulfide, disulfide, thiocyanide, thioselenide, etc.

Thiols are important precursors for the synthesis of a variety of pharmaceutically important sulfur-containing compounds. Here, the authors report a visible light-mediated decarboxylative thiolation of alkyl redox-active esters to free thiols and the in situ product diversification of a number of thiol derivatives.

Polysulfuration via a Bilateral Thiamine Disulfurating Reagent

An efficient moduling disulfuration was developed for polysulfide construction via a bilateral six-membered thiamine disulfurating reagent. Under the control of energy release of ring strain, diverse unsymmetrical trisulfides and tetrasulfides were generated through the assembly of nucleophiles on both sides of the sulfur-sulfur motif. This strategy exhibits features of high efficiency, mild conditions, and general scope.

Radical Substitution Provides a Unique Route to Disulfides

Radical substitution on tetrasulfides is demonstrated to be a highly effective means to prepare unsymmetric disulfides. Alkyl and aryl radicals generated thermally or photochemically underwent substitution on readily prepared dialkyl, diaryl, and diacyl tetrasulfides to yield the corresponding disulfides in good to excellent yields. Classic and contemporary thermal and photochemical radical sources could be employed; while photoredox catalysis approaches led to either oxidation or reduction of the tetrasulfide, energy transfer photocatalysis was particularly useful. The success of the approach is driven by the thermodynamic stability of the perthiyl radicals formed upon substitution on the tetrasulfide; they simply combine under the reaction conditions to provide the starting tetrasulfide. Competition kinetic experiments reveal that alkyl radical substitution on tetrasulfides is a rapid reaction (6 × 10⁵ M^-1 s^-1) that is enhanced at least 6-fold upon moving from dialkyl tetrasulfide to diacyl tetrasulfide due to favorable polar effects. This unique and versatile reaction enables introduction of disulfide moieties from a variety of radical precursors and straightforward access to hydropersulfides.

Synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfides via PPh3-mediated reductive coupling of thiophenols with sulfonyl chlorides

A facile and rapid synthesis of unsymmetrical aryl disulfides using PPh3-mediated reductive coupling of thiophenols with aryl sulfonyl chlorides was described. Good functional group tolerance and scalability were achieved in this strategy. More importantly, the approach enables the introduction of sulfonyl chlorides into the synthesis of asymmetric organic disulfides under catalyst- and base-free conditions. Using this method, unsymmetrical aromatic disulfides could be prepared from inexpensive and readily available starting materials in moderate to excellent isolated yields, through a nucleophilic substitution pathway.

Phenylboronic acid-catalyzed tandem construction of S-S and C-S bonds: a new method for the synthesis of benzyl disulfanylsulfone derivatives from S-benzyl thiosulfonates

A unique phenylboronic acid-catalyzed dimerization-sulfonylation of S-benzyl thiosulfonates has been disclosed. A metal-free tandem construction of S-S and C-S bonds is an operationally simple method to access a wide range of benzyl disulfanylsulfone derivatives in high to excellent yields. Moreover, the robustness of this tandem transformation has been demonstrated by gram-scale reactions, and a plausible mechanism is also proposed.

Bivalent glycoconjugates based on 1,5-diazabicyclo[3.3.0]octa-3,6-diene-2,8-dione ("bimane") as a central scaffold

The heteroaromatic fused diazabicyclic "bimane" ring system, discovered four decades ago, is endowed with remarkable chemical and photophysical properties. No carbohydrate derivatives of bimanes have, however, been described thus far. Here we report on the syntheses of a range of bimanes decorated with various glycosyl residues. Mono- and disaccharide residues were attached to syn- or anti-bimane central cores via thio-, disulfido- or selenoglycosidic linkages to obtain novel fluorescent or nonfluorescent glycoconjugates. Cu(I)-catalyzed cycloaddition of glycosyl azides to a bimane diethynyl derivative furnished further bivalent glycoconjugates with sugar residues linked to the central bimane core via 1,2,3-triazole rings. We have determined the crystal and molecular structures of several glycosylated and non-glycosylated bimanes and report fluorescence data for the new compounds.

Asymmetric kinetic resolution of sulfides for the construction of unsymmetric sulfides and chiral 3,3-disubstituted oxindoles

An efficient method for preparing unsymmetric disulfides using para-quinone methides derived from isatins was developed. In addition, chiral 3,3-disubstituted oxindoles were also obtained with high selectivities via asymmetric kinetic resolution.

Decarboxylative sulfenylation of amino acids via metallaphotoredox catalysis

A nickel/visible light photoredox co-catalyzed decarboxylative thiolation reaction of carboxylic acids has been developed. This odorless sulfenylation reaction proceeded well via a nickel/photoredox cooperative catalysis pathway under very mild conditions.

Synthesis of unsymmetrical disulfanes bearing 1,2,4-triazine scaffold and their in vitro screening towards anti-breast cancer activity

ABSTRACT

A new series of 1,2,4-triazine unsymmetrical disulfanes were prepared and evaluated as anticancer activity compounds against MCF-7 human breast cancer cells with some of them acting as low micromolar inhibitors. Evaluation of the cytotoxicity using an MTT assay, the inhibition of [3H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA demonstrated that these products exhibit cytotoxic effects on breast cancer cells in vitro. The most effective compounds with 59 and 60 µM compared to chlorambucil with 47 µM were disulfanes bearing methyl and methoxy substituent in an aromatic ring. Furthermore, all new 14 compounds were obtained with 22-74% yield via mild and efficient synthesis of the sulfur-sulfur bond formation from thiols and symmetrical disulfanes using 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ). The molecular structure of the newly obtained compounds was confirmed by X-ray analysis. The conformational preferences of disulfide system were characterized using theoretical calculations at DFT level and statistical distributions of C-S-S-C torsion angle values based on the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD). The DFT calculations and CSD searching show two preferential conformations for C-S-S-C torsion angle close to ± 90° and relatively large freedom of rotation on S-S bond in physiological conditions. The molecular docking studies were performed using the human estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) as molecular target to find possible binding orientation and intermolecular interactions of investigated disulfanes within the active site of ERα. The S…H-S and S…H-C hydrogen bonds between sulfur atoms of bisulfide bridge and S-H and C-H groups of Cys530 and Ala350 as protein residues play crucial role in interaction with estrogen receptor for the most anticancer active disulfane.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Cu-Catalyzed Electrophilic Disulfur Transfer: Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Disulfides

An efficient electrophilic persulfuration reaction leading to unsymmetrical disulfides and polysulfides has been developed. Various nucleophiles, including aryl boronic acids, β-keto esters, and thiols, can be used as substrates. The notable features of this method include very simple and practical conditions, general scope, and inexpensive copper catalysts.

Polysulfurating reagent design for unsymmetrical polysulfide construction

From life science to material science, to pharmaceutical industry, and to food chemistry, polysulfides are vital structural scaffolds. However, there are limited synthetic methods for unsymmetrical polysulfides. Conventional strategies entail two pre-sulfurated cross-coupling substrates, R-S, with higher chances of side reactions due to the characteristic of sulfur. Herein, a library of broad-spectrum polysulfurating reagents, R-S-S-OMe, are designed and scalably synthesized, to which the R-S-S source can be directly introduced for late-stage modifications of biomolecules, natural products, and pharmaceuticals. Based on the hard and soft acids and bases principle, selective activation of sulfur-oxygen bond has been accomplished via utilizing proton and boride for efficient unsymmetrical polysulfuration. These polysulfurating reagents are highlighted with their outstanding multifunctional gram-scale transformations with various nucleophiles under mild conditions. A diversity of polysulfurated biomolecules, such as SS-(+)-δ-tocopherol, SS-sulfanilamide, SS-saccharides, SS-amino acids, and SSS-oligopeptides have been established for drug discovery and development.

Electro-Oxidative S-H/S-H Cross-Coupling with Hydrogen Evolution: Facile Access to Unsymmetrical Disulfides

Sulfur is an essential element because it exists widely in proteins. The disulfide bond is an important moiety in many different types of significant organic molecules. A new approach for oxidant- and catalyst-free S-H/S-H cross-coupling, with hydrogen evolution, to construct unsymmetrical disulfides was developed. Under the conditions of an undivided cell at room temperature, a series of unsymmetrical disulfides were prepared with up to 87 % yield from the direct coupling of an aryl mercaptan and alkyl mercaptan. Gram-scale synthesis also highlights the synthetic utility of this electrochemical strategy.

Convenient and efficient synthesis of functionalized unsymmetrical Z-alkenyl disulfanes

We developed a simple and efficient method for the synthesis of functionalized unsymmetrical Z-alkenyl disulfanes under mild conditions in moderate to good yields. The designed method is based on the reaction of Z-alkenyl thiotosylates with thiols in the presence of base. The developed method allows the preparation of unsymmetrical Z-alkenyl disulfanes bearing additional hydroxy, carboxy, or amino functionalities.

Thermal conversion of primary alcohols to disulfidesviaxanthate intermediates: an extension to the Chugaev elimination

Heating primaryO-alkylS-difluoro(ethoxycarbonyl)methyl xanthates yields disulfides. This extends to the Chugaev elimination.

Tunable Synthesis of Disulfide-Functionalized Enaminones and 1,4-Thiazines via the Reactions of Enaminones and β-Aminoethanethiol

The reactions of β-aminoethanethiol with N,N-dimethyl enaminones are performed to selectively provide disulfide-functionalized enaminones and 1,4-thiazines. By performing the reaction in water and catalyst-free conditions, the transamination and oxidative S-S coupling between the two substrates take place to give disulfide-functionalized enaminones. On the other hand, by using identical starting materials, the employment of the CuI catalyst in dimethyl sulfoxide enables the selective generation of 1,4-thiazines via tandem transamination and C(sp2)-H bond thiolation.

Novel strategies for the synthesis of unsymmetrical glycosyl disulfides

Novel strategies for the efficient synthesis of unsymmetrical glycosyl disulfides are reported. Glycosyl disulfides are increasingly important as glycomimetics and molecular probes in glycobiology. Sialosyl disulfides are synthesised directly from the chlorosialoside Neu5Ac2Cl, proceeding via a thiol-disulfide exchange reaction between the sialosyl thiolate and symmetrical disulfides. This methodology was adapted and found to be successfully applicable to the synthesis of unsymmetrical glucosyl disulfides under mild conditions.