Laparoscopy for appendicitis and cholelithiasis during pregnancy: a new standard of care

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy: An Australian retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Biliary tract disease is a common non-obstetric surgical presentation during pregnancy. Although small international series demonstrate favourable outcomes following laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) during pregnancy, there is a paucity of Australian data to complement these findings.

METHOD

Between 1st January 2003 and 30th June 2013, all patients undergoing planned LC during pregnancy at Western Health were retrospectively identified.

RESULTS

Twenty-two patients underwent planned LC with 3 (13%) cases converted to open surgery. The median maternal age was 31 years (27.8-36) with an estimated median gestational age (EGA) of 19.5 weeks (16.5-23.5). Eighteen (82%) cases were performed during the second trimester. Nine (40%) patients had 2 or more hospital admissions for similar presentations. Twelve (54%) were performed as index cases. Operative indications included 12 (54%) with recurrent biliary colic, five (22%) with acute cholecystitis and 3 (14%) with gallstone pancreatitis. Median operating time for completed LCs was 65 min (60-95). Intra-operative cholangiogram was performed in seven (32%) cases, 5 (71%) of which employed protective uterine lead shielding. There was no fetal loss or uterine injury. Median hospital stay was 3 days (2-7) for completed LCs. Major morbidity occurred in 2 (10%) completed LCs that required a return to theatre. Five (23%) births were lost to follow up. The median time to delivery post-surgery was 13 weeks (11-15). Two (12%) preterm deliveries occurred, with subsequent neonatal complications.

CONCLUSION

Antenatal laparoscopic cholecystectomy demonstrated comparably safe outcomes. Increasing its utilization to manage symptomatic cholelithiasis during pregnancy may be considered.

Advances in understanding and treating liver diseases during pregnancy: A review

Liver disease in pregnancy is rare but pregnancy-related liver diseases may cause threat to fetal and maternal survival. It includes pre-eclampsia; eclampsia; haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome; acute fatty liver of pregnancy; hyperemesis gravidarum; and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Recent basic researches have shown the various etiologies involved in this disease entity. With these advances, rapid diagnosis is essential for severe cases since the decision of immediate delivery is important for maternal and fetal survival. The other therapeutic options have also been shown in recent reports based on the clinical trials and cooperation and information sharing between hepatologist and gynecologist is important for timely therapeutic intervention. Therefore, correct understandings of diseases and differential diagnosis from the pre-existing and co-incidental liver diseases during the pregnancy will help to achieve better prognosis. Therefore, here we review and summarized recent advances in understanding the etiologies, clinical courses and management of liver disease in pregnancy. This information will contribute to physicians for diagnosis of disease and optimum management of patients.

Abdominal surgery in pregnancy--an interdisciplinary challenge

BACKGROUND

Abdominal operations are performed during ca. 2% of all pregnancies. They represent an unusual situation not only for the patient, but also for the involved surgeons and anesthesiologists. Appendectomy, followed by cholecystectomy are the two most common types of operation performed during pregnancy. Special questions arise with regard to the peri- and intraoperative management and the optimal surgical approach.

METHOD

This review is based on pertinent articles retrieved by a selective search in the PubMed database.

RESULTS

The question of laparoscopy versus laparotomy during pregnancy has been addressed to date only in case series and a few meta-analyses. Two meta-analyses have shown a significantly higher rate of miscarriage after laparoscopic, compared to open, appendectomy (relative risk [RR] 1.91, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.31-2.77). The risk of preterm birth is also somewhat higher after laparoscopic appendectomy according to one meta-analysis on this subject (RR 1.44, 95% CI 0.78-1.76), but significantly lower according to another meta-analysis (2.1% vs. 8.1%, p<0.0001). For cholecystectomy, laparoscopy was associated with a lower miscarriage rate than laparotomy (1 in 89 cases, versus 2 in 69 cases), but with a somewhat higher preterm birth rate (6 in 89 cases, versus 2 in 69 cases). Delay or non-performance of surgery in a patient with appendicitis or cholecystitis can lead to additional hospitalizations, a higher miscarriage rate, premature rupture of the membranes, and preterm birth.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopy in experienced hands is safe even during pregnancy, with the recognized advantages of minimally invasive surgery, yet it carries a higher miscarriage rate than laparotomy, with a comparable preterm birth rate. Before surgery, patients should be thoroughly informed about the operation they are about to undergo and the advantages and disadvantages of the available surgical approaches.

Comparative analysis of laparoscopy versus laparotomy in the management of ovarian cyst during pregnancy

AIM

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the surgical and obstetric results of laparoscopy versus laparotomy in the management of ovarian cyst during pregnancy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sixty-nine eligible patients who met our criteria were randomly divided into the laparoscopy group (n = 33) and the laparotomy group (n = 36). The two groups were compared for their surgical and obstetric outcomes and the extent of pelvic adhesion discovered in later cesarean section (CS).

RESULTS

The laparoscopy group had less blood loss (43 ± 15 vs 51 ± 13 mL, P = 0.02), shorter postoperative hospital stay (2.9 ± 0.5 vs 5.8 ± 0.6 days, P < 0.001), and lower postoperative pain score (2.7 ± 1.2 vs 5.9 ± 1.5, P < 0.001) compared with the laparotomy group. The operative time, neonates' Apgar scores and birthweights between the two groups showed no significant differences (P > 0.05). Sixteen patients in the laparoscopy group, and 15 patients in the laparotomy group underwent cesarean section. The filmy and dense type adhesion rate was significantly different between the laparoscopy group and the laparotomy group (6.25% vs 53.3%, and 0% vs 20%, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The present results suggest that laparoscopy is a better choice than laparotomy for ovarian cyst during pregnancy, with less blood loss, less postoperative pain and less postoperative hospital stay. It offers a faster recovery, results in less pelvic adhesion and does not affect the fetus; however, studies encompassing larger numbers of cases are needed.

Management of pregnant patients undergoing general surgical procedures

Pregnant patients have a 0.2% to 0.75% chance of developing a medical condition that requires a general surgical intervention during pregnancy. To safely and appropriately care for patients, surgeons must be cognizant of the maternal physiologic changes in pregnancy as well as of the unique risk to both mothers and fetuses of diagnostic modalities, anesthetic care, operative intervention, and postoperative management. Surgeons can be assured that, if these risks are understood and considered, operating during pregnancy, even in the abdomen, can be safely undertaken.

Cholesterol cholelithiasis in pregnant women: pathogenesis, prevention and treatment

Epidemiological and clinical studies have found that gallstone prevalence is twice as high in women as in men at all ages in every population studied. Hormonal changes occurring during pregnancy put women at higher risk. The incidence rates of biliary sludge (a precursor to gallstones) and gallstones are up to 30 and 12%, respectively, during pregnancy and postpartum, and 1-3% of pregnant women undergo cholecystectomy due to clinical symptoms or complications within the first year postpartum. Increased estrogen levels during pregnancy induce significant metabolic changes in the hepatobiliary system, including the formation of cholesterol-supersaturated bile and sluggish gallbladder motility, two factors enhancing cholelithogenesis. The therapeutic approaches are conservative during pregnancy because of the controversial frequency of biliary disorders. In the majority of pregnant women, biliary sludge and gallstones tend to dissolve spontaneously after parturition. In some situations, however, the conditions persist and require costly therapeutic interventions. When necessary, invasive procedures such as laparoscopic cholecystectomy are relatively well tolerated, preferably during the second trimester of pregnancy or postpartum. Although laparoscopic operation is recommended for its safety, the use of drugs such as ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and the novel lipid-lowering compound, ezetimibe would also be considered. In this paper, we systematically review the incidence and natural history of pregnancy-related biliary sludge and gallstone formation and carefully discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying the lithogenic effect of estrogen on gallstone formation during pregnancy. We also summarize recent progress in the necessary strategies recommended for the prevention and the treatment of gallstones in pregnant women.

Laparoscopic appendicectomy in pregnancy: a systematic review of the published evidence

Surgical intervention for acute appendicitis during pregnancy carries significant risk to both mother and foetus. The safety of Laparoscopic Appendicectomy in pregnancy has been a matter of debate among clinicians. We have critically reviewed the available published evidence in regards with this debate.

CONCLUSION

There is no strong current evidence as to the preferred modality of appendicectomy; open or laparoscopic, during pregnancy from the prospect of foetal or maternal safety. However, low grade evidence shows that laparoscopic appendicectomy during pregnancy might be associated with higher rates of foetal loss.

Cost-effectiveness of preoperative imaging for appendicitis after indeterminate ultrasonography in the second or third trimester of pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

To assess the cost-effectiveness of diagnostic laparoscopy, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) after indeterminate ultrasonography in pregnant women with suspected appendicitis.

METHODS

A decision-analytic model was developed to simulate appendicitis during pregnancy taking into consideration the health outcomes for both the pregnant women and developing fetuses. Strategies included diagnostic laparoscopy, CT, and MRI. Outcomes included positive appendectomy, negative appendectomy, maternal perioperative complications, preterm delivery, fetal loss, childhood cancer, lifetime costs, discounted life expectancy, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios.

RESULTS

Magnetic resonance imaging is the most cost-effective strategy, costing $6,767 per quality-adjusted life-year gained relative to CT, well below the generally accepted $50,000 per quality-adjusted life-year threshold. In a setting where MRI is unavailable, CT is cost-effective even when considering the increased risk of radiation-associated childhood cancer ($560 per quality-adjusted life-year gained relative to diagnostic laparoscopy). Unless the negative appendectomy rate is less than 1%, imaging of any type is more cost-effective than proceeding directly to diagnostic laparoscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

Depending on imaging costs and resource availability, both CT and MRI are potentially cost-effective. The risk of radiation-associated childhood cancer from CT has little effect on population-level outcomes or cost-effectiveness but is a concern for individual patients. For pregnant women with suspected appendicitis, an extremely high level of clinical diagnostic certainty must be reached before proceeding to operation without preoperative imaging.

Risk Factors for Conversion from Laparoscopic to Open Surgery: Analysis of 2138 Converted Operations in the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program

Minimal access procedures have influenced surgical practice and patient expectations. Risk of laparoscopic conversion to open surgery is frequently cited but vaguely quantified. The present study examines three common procedures to identify risk factors for laparoscopic conversion to open (LCO) events. Cross-sectional analysis using the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (ACS-NSQIP; 2005 to 2009) identified cases with laparoscopic procedure codes for appendectomy, cholecystectomy, and bariatric procedures. The primary outcome was conversion of a laparoscopic procedure to its open equivalent. Summary statistics for laparoscopic and LCO groups were compared and logistic regression analysis was used to estimate patient and operative risk factors for conversion. Of 176,014 selected laparoscopic operations, 2,138 (1.2%) were converted. Most patients were female (68%) and white (71.2%); mean age was 45.1 years. LCO cholecystectomy was significantly more likely (n = 1526 [1.9%]) and LCO bariatric procedures were less likely (n = 121 [0.3%]); appendectomy was intermediate (n = 491 [1.0%], P < 0.001). Patient factors associated with LCO included male sex ( P < 0.001), age 30 years or older ( P < 0.025), American Society of Anesthesiologists Class 2 to 4 ( P < 0.001), obesity ( P < 0.01), history of bleeding disorder ( P = 0.036), or preoperative systemic inflammatory response syndrome or sepsis ( P < 0.001). LCO was associated with greater incidence of postoperative complications, including death, organ space surgical site infection, sepsis, wound dehiscence, and return to the operating room ( P < 0.001). Overall LCO incidence is low in hospitals participating in ACS-NSQIP. Conversion risk factors include patient age, sex, obesity, and preoperative comorbidity as well as the procedure performed. This information should be valuable to clinicians in discussing conversion risk with patients.

Appendectomy during pregnancy--is pregnancy outcome depending by operation technique?

OBJECTIVE

To compare perioperative and pregnancy outcome between women undergoing laparoscopic appendectomy and those undergoing open appendectomy during pregnancy for presumed acute appendicitis.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of all women undergoing appendectomy during pregnancy in a tertiary referral medical center from 2000 to 2009. Outcome was compared between those undergoing laparoscopic appendectomy and those undergoing open appendectomy.

RESULTS

Overall, 83,510 deliveries occurred during the study period, 85 (0.10%) were eligible for the study group. Of these, 26 (31%) had a laparoscopic appendectomy and 59 (69%) had an open appendectomy. No significant difference was found in the general, delivery and neonatal outcome characteristics between the two groups. There was a significant difference in the mean gestational age at surgery between laparoscopic appendectomy and the open appendectomy groups (14.6 versus 19.3 weeks respectively, p = 0.009). Post-operative complications (fever >38.0 °C or the presence of uterine contractions) rate was higher in the open appendectomy compared to the laparoscopic appendectomy group (25.5% versus 3.8%, respectively, p = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic appendectomy appears to be a safe procedure for presumed acute appendicitis during pregnancy with less post-operative complications as compared to open appendectomy.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of safety of laparoscopic versus open appendicectomy for suspected appendicitis in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic appendicectomy has gained wide acceptance as an alternative to open appendicectomy during pregnancy. However, data regarding the safety and optimal surgical approach to appendicitis in pregnancy are still controversial.

METHODS

This was a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing laparoscopic and open appendicectomy in pregnancy identified using PubMed and Scopus search engines from January 1990 to July 2011. Two reviewers independently extracted data on fetal loss, preterm delivery, wound infection, duration of operation, hospital stay, Apgar score and birth weight between laparoscopic and open appendicectomy groups.

RESULTS

Eleven studies with a total of 3415 women (599 in laparoscopic and 2816 in open group) were included in the analysis. Fetal loss was statistically significantly worse in those who underwent laparoscopy compared with open appendicectomy; the pooled relative risk (RR) was 1·91 (95 per cent confidence interval (c.i.) 1·31 to 2·77) without heterogeneity. The pooled RR for preterm labour was 1·44 (0·68 to 3·06), but this risk was not statistically significant. The mean difference in length of hospital stay was - 0·49 (-1·76 to - 0·78) days, but this was not clinically significant. No significant difference was found for wound infection, birth weight, duration of operation or Apgar score.

CONCLUSION

The available low-grade evidence suggests that laparoscopic appendicectomy in pregnant women might be associated with a greater risk of fetal loss.

Laparoscopic management of pseudocyst of the pancreas in a pregnant patient

Gallstone pancreatitis is a rare problem in pregnant patients. A primigravida with persistent symptoms of abdomen pain, nausea, vomiting, and inability to tolerate oral diet presented at 5 weeks of pregnancy. A laparoscopic cystogastrostomy with cholecystectomy was performed at 13 weeks of pregnancy. There are only 10 case reports in literature of pseudocyst in pregnancy and in none of them ante partum surgical management was done.

Laparoscopy in pregnancy and the pediatric patient

Minimally invasive surgery is now standard of care for many procedures in pediatric gynecology. Laparoscopy has been well documented to produce faster recovery,decreased postoperative pain, and because of smaller incisions, a better cosmetic result. These are important when considering an active pediatric patient. Although a laparoscopic approach to endometriosis, adnexal masses, and ovarian torsion are well supported in the literature in the pediatric patient, more data are needed with regard to SILS in younger patients. Laparoscopy seems to be a better approach to oopheropexy in children undergoing radiation, and in resection of certain mullerian anomalies; however, the numbers are low.Similarly in pregnant patients, laparoscopy provides for shorter recovery times,decrease analgesic use and shorter hospital stays. Concerns about poor fetal outcomes in surgery during pregnancy for non gynecologic problems have been brought to light; however, the evidence indicates that these outcomes can be attributed to the nature of the underlying disease and not the surgical approach. With regard to pneumoperitoneum the effect of CO2 insufflation on fetal physiology and long-term outcomes remains unclear, and will continue to be an issue of controversy until larger studies are published.With both the pediatric and pregnant populations, laparoscopic complications can be diminished when performed by skilled surgeons with strict adherence to good technical principles. The advantages of laparoscopy are great, and this approach should be considered in pediatric and pregnant patients.

Suspicion of acute appendicitis in the third trimester of pregnancy: pros and cons of a laparoscopic procedure

This review suggests that diagnostic laparoscopy during the third trimester of pregnancy is a logical strategy to minimize maternal and fetal risk when acute appendicitis is suspected.

The presentation of acute appendicitis during pregnancy may cause diagnostic and therapeutic difficulty. Delay in diagnosis may lead to increased maternal and fetal risk. Therefore, an aggressive surgical approach is mandatory, even though this may result in an increased number of appendectomies for normal appendices. Diagnostic laparoscopy, followed by laparoscopic appendectomy in case of inflammation, seems a logical strategy. We present the case of a 36-week pregnant woman who presented with suspicion of acute appendicitis. The pro and cons of a laparoscopic approach in the third trimester of pregnancy are discussed as is its safety by reviewing the literature.

Laparoscopic management of fallopian tube torsion at 35 weeks of gestation: case report

Isolated fallopian tube torsion requiring surgical intervention in pregnancy is rare. Herein is reported a case of fallopian tube torsion that was managed laparoscopically at 35 weeks of gestation.

Appendectomy during the third trimester of pregnancy in a 27-year old patient: case report of a "near miss" complication

The management of acute appendicitis during pregnancy is not fully established, especially regarding the choice between open and laparoscopic surgery during the third trimester. We report herein the case of a major uterine variecele hemorrhage during a laparoscopic appendectomy in a 27-year old pregnant patient at 33 weeks of amenorrhea. After conversion to a Pfannenstiel incision, the baby was delivered, the bleeding stopped and the appendectomy completed. While both mother and child fully recovered, this «near miss» complication underlines the challenges linked to the management of acute appendicitis during pregnancy. Based on a literature review, we propose an algorithm favoring the laparoscopic approach during the first and second trimesters, and the open approach during the third trimester (especially after the 26th week of amenorrhea). In case of unclear pre-operative diagnosis, a laparoscopy should be conducted even during the third trimester with a Mc Burney conversion when the diagnosis of appendicitis is confirmed.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester of pregnancy: report of 3 cases

AIM

Symptomatic cholelithiasis and acute appendicitis are the most common surgical conditions requiring nonobstetric abdominal surgery during pregnancy. Cholelithiasis is diagnosed in 0.07% of pregnancy and in about 40% of these patients surgery may be required. Pregnancy was once considered an absolute contraindication for laparoscopic surgery, but pregnant patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery have been reported increasingly in the past decade. However, most case reports and case series are confined to patients in the first and second trimester. We report here 3 patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester and review the relevant literature.

METHODS

Pregnant women in the third trimester who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy were reviewed between the years 2000 and 2004 at our hospital.

RESULTS

Three pregnant patients in the third trimester at a gestational age of 28 weeks, and 2 at 26 weeks underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Initial port was placed in all patients by Hasson open technique, few centimeters cephalad to fundal height. The insufflation pressure was maintained between 12 to 14 mm Hg. The duration of surgery ranged from 64 to 80 minutes (mean: 72 min). Obstetric assessment was carried out preoperatively and fetal well-being was monitored postoperatively. Tocolytic agents were used in 2 patients. There were no intraoperative or postoperative complications. All patients were discharged on the second postoperative day. All the 3 patients delivered healthy babies normally at full term (range: 39 to 40 wk).

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be carried out safely in the third trimester of pregnancy with minimal risk to the fetus and the mother.

Safety and outcome of general surgical open and laparoscopic procedures during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Surgical procedures during pregnancy carry the risk of adverse fetal outcome. We analyzed outcomes of open and laparoscopic approaches in patients treated for symptomatic cholelithiasis and suspected appendicitis. We reviewed the literature for evidence on the safety of both procedures.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the data of all patients who underwent surgery for symptomatic cholelithiasis and suspicion of appendicitis during pregnancy between January 2004 and March 2009. Fetal loss, preterm delivery, maternal outcome, and surgical complications were assessed.

RESULTS

Twenty patients were operated on during pregnancy: 5 of 652 (0.8%) patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis and 15 (4.5%) of 331 for suspected appendicitis. All cholecystectomies were performed by laparoscopic procedure; no premature deliveries or fetal death occurred. In patients with suspicion of appendicitis, three appendices sana were diagnosed laparoscopically, and nine laparoscopic appendectomies and three open appendectomies were performed. The outcome was two preterm deliveries and one fetal death.

CONCLUSION

Reviewing our results and the available literature, we believe that the outcome of surgery during pregnancy is not dictated by the type of procedure but by the type of disease. The gain for fetal outcome in the future most likely lies in the diagnostic pathway rather than the type of surgery.

Bariatric emergencies for non-bariatric surgeons: complications of laparoscopic gastric banding

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB) has gained popularity for treatment of morbid obesity worldwide. With the widespread use of LAGB, an increasing number of medical specialists are dealing with the potentially life-threatening complications of this procedure.

METHODS

More than 6,000 LABGs were performed by our surgeons during the past 11 years, during which various complications of LAGB were observed, including band slippage, erosion, gastric pouch dilatation, port infection, and disconnection. Complicated cases requiring emergency surgical intervention were collected. We present and discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities of these complications.

RESULTS

Fourteen cases were identified: six with acute band slippage, two with small bowel obstruction, and one each with band slippage and fetal intrauterine growth restriction during the 36th week of pregnancy, perforated gastric ulcer, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, connecting tube penetration into a stomach ulcer, connecting tube penetration into the colon, and port disconnection. All patients had gastrointestinal symptoms at admission. Band reposition was performed in four cases; eight patients required band removal for band contamination. The band was open and still in place in one case. Open and laparoscopic gastric resections for necrotic stomach were performed in two cases. Suture of perforated gastric ulcer was combined with cesarean section. Connection of disconnected port and suture of colonic and gastric penetrations and perforation of fundus were completed laparoscopically. Small bowel resection and enterotomy required an additional minimal laparotomic incision. No mortality was observed in our series. Four patients elected to have the LAGB reinserted at a later time.

CONCLUSION

The increasing number of bariatric procedures has resulted in emergency physicians' knowledge of serious complications of LAGB that require urgent surgical intervention. Treatment algorithms require early diagnosis and a surgical approach to solving these conditions.

BILIARY AND PANCREATIC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY

Pregnancy is a physiological condition that affects all organs. Diseases unrelated to pregnancy may present coincidentally during pregnancy or may be exacerbated by pregnancy, and may increase maternal and/or fetal morbidity or mortality. Compared with many other systems, the changes within the biliary tree and pancreas are relatively minimal. However, pregnancy is associated with an increased likelihood of cholelithiasis, which can have significant implications for the parturient.

Visceral surgery and pregnancy

With an incidence of 950,000 pregnancies per year in France, the likelihood of seeing one or more surgical abdominal diseases during pregnancy is high. The goal of this update was to describe the management of four different settings in the pregnant woman: colorectal cancer, laparoscopic surgery, gastrointestinal emergency surgery, and bariatric surgery.

Diagnosis of appendicitis in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of appendicitis in pregnant patients is challenging.

METHODS

The records of pregnant patients with suspected appendicitis were reviewed.

RESULTS

Forty-seven patients with suspected appendicitis were identified. Twenty-four patients did not undergo surgery. Twenty-three patients had ultrasound (US), none of which visualized the appendix. Seventeen patients were followed up clinically and improved. Six patients had a negative computed tomography (CT) and none required surgery. Twenty-three patients underwent surgery for presumed appendicitis. Three patients had no imaging. Twelve patients had US only; US was positive in 5 patients and all had appendicitis. Seven patients who underwent surgery had a nondiagnostic US. One patient had appendicitis. Seven patients had a positive CT and appendicitis at surgery. One patient had a positive US and magnetic resonance imaging, and had appendicitis. A total of 43 patients had US, of which 86% were nondiagnostic. Six US were read as positive and all patients had appendicitis. Thirteen patients had CT with no false-positive or false-negative results.

CONCLUSIONS

US, when read as positive, requires no further confirmatory test other than surgery. If US is nondiagnostic, further imaging may avoid a negative appendectomy.

Laparoscopy: a safe approach to appendicitis during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate laparoscopic versus open surgery for suspected appendicitis during pregnancy.

METHODS

A hospital-based retrospective review of 65 consecutive pregnant patients who underwent surgery for suspected appendicitis from 1999 to 2008 was performed. Significance was determined by Pearson's chi(2) test, Fisher's exact test, Mann-Whitney test, and Kruskal-Wallis test.

RESULTS

Of the 65 patients, 48 cases were laparoscopic and 17 open. Use of the laparoscopic versus open approach was significantly increased in the first (100% vs. 0%, p < 0.001) and second trimesters (73% vs. 27%, p < 0.001). The open approach was used more frequently in third-trimester patients (71% vs. 29%, p = NS). Significance was demonstrated in mean length of hospital stay in the laparoscopic versus open group (3.4 vs. 4.2 days, p = 0.001). No maternal mortalities occurred. Follow-up of fetal outcome was achieved in 89% of patients. No difference was demonstrated in fetal loss (1 in laparoscopic group), APGAR score, birth weight, and preterm delivery rate by operative approach. Adverse outcome was associated with maternal temperature greater than 38 degrees C, leukocytosis greater than 16 x 10(9)/l, or more than 48 h between onset of symptoms and emergency room presentation.

CONCLUSIONS

This article is the largest hospital-based series evaluating the laparoscopic versus open approach for pregnant patients with presumed acute appendicitis. While methodological limitations preclude a definitive recommendation, laparoscopy appears to be a safe, feasible, and efficacious approach for pregnant patients with presumed acute appendicitis. We conclude that it is likely not the surgical approach but the underlying diagnosis combined with maternal factors that determine the risk for pregnancy complications. A benefit of laparoscopy is the diagnostic ability to identify other intra-abdominal pathology which may mimic appendicitis and harbor pregnancy risks.

Laparoscopic ventral hernia repair during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic ventral hernia repair in comparison to open herniorrhaphy results in reduced length of stay, less post-operative pain, earlier return to work, and reduced complications for the repair of complex ventral hernias. The laparoscopic approach has been the standard of care for complex or large ventral hernias for non-pregnant patients over the past decade. Despite evidence that demonstrates that laparoscopy is safe during pregnancy, there is currently no consensus regarding the indications, contraindications, patient selection and post-operative care of pregnant patients evaluated for laparoscopic ventral herniorrhaphy.

METHODS

The medical records of our pregnant patient who underwent laparoscopic ventral herniorrhaphy were reviewed for demographics, operative indications, surgical technique, perioperative complications, recurrence, and outcome of the pregnancy. A Medline search using the terms: laparoscopy, surgery, and pregnancy was performed to review the literature from 1997 to 2007.

RESULTS

This case report represents the first published description of a safe and successful laparoscopic approach to the repair of a complex ventral hernia in a woman at 21 weeks gestation. The discussion reviews the current literature regarding the safety of laparoscopy in pregnant women and highlights techniques to reduce perioperative morbidity and risk to the fetus.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic ventral hernia repair can be safe during pregnancy with appropriate fetal monitoring and consideration of physiologic changes that occur during parturition. Elective procedures should be delayed until after delivery and all semi-elective surgeries until organogenesis is completed during the second trimester.

Safety of laparoscopic appendectomy during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Use of laparoscopic appendectomy (LA) remains controversial during pregnancy because data regarding procedure safety are limited. The outcome of LA in pregnant women was evaluated and compared to results of open surgery.

METHODS

Between January 1997 and December 2007, 42 pregnant women (mean age 24 years [range: 19-40 years]; range of gestation: 5-25 weeks) underwent appendectomy for suspected acute appendicitis: 23 laparoscopic (LA) and 19 open appendectomies (OA). Retrospective review of medical charts included preoperative information, surgery results, and outcome of the pregnancy.

RESULTS

There was no difference between groups in surgery delay following arrival at the hospital. All procedures, except one case of Meckel's diverticulitis, were completed laparoscopically without need for conversion. Acute appendicitis was found in 19 cases and Meckel's diverticulitis in one case during LA (87%) and in 18 cases (95%) during OA. Complicated appendicitis was found in 7 (30%) pregnant women in the LA group and 1 (5%) in the OA group. Five women with normal preoperative abdominal ultrasonography had acute appendicitis (2 in the OA group and 3 in the LA group). The laparoscopic procedure was performed more often by senior surgeons (70% of cases), and OA was more commonly done by residents (47% of cases). There were no intraoperative or postoperative complications recorded. The length of postoperative hospital stay was slightly prolonged after LA-2.4 days versus 1.4 day after OA. There was one fetal loss in each group, 1 and 2 months after the operation.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic appendectomy is safe and effective during pregnancy and is associated with good maternal and fetal outcome.

Management of the acute abdomen in pregnancy: a review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The acute abdomen remains a challenge for all physicians who take part in the care of women in pregnancy. Obstetricians must be abreast of current topics, especially critical when having to consult other specialties for assistance in managing these conditions.

RECENT FINDINGS

We will highlight recent observations in the literature concerning the ability to perform laparoscopy safely in pregnancy, the accuracy of diagnosing appendicitis, and new methods to accurately diagnose urolithiasis with less ionizing radiation effect on the fetus. Finally, with the proficiency of laparoscopy and choledochoscopy improving, we will review several articles underlining their safety.

SUMMARY

Laparoscopy appears to be well tolerated in pregnancy, but larger multicenter prospective studies are required to make better recommendations concerning its use, with a registry needed to facilitate this endeavor. Conservative management of gallstone pancreatitis may fall out of favor, and choledochoscopy for symptomatic gallstones in the biliary tree may become the treatment of choice. Most cases of urolithiasis resolve with conservative management, but the possibility of preterm labor in these patients must be recognized and newer imaging techniques for diagnosis containing less radiation be used. Adnexal torsion in pregnancy may be another condition that is managed through the laparoscope as the gynecologic community's laparoscopic skills improve.

Laparoscopic appendectomy in pregnant patients: a review of 45 cases

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Laparoscopic surgery in pregnancy remains debated, especially in cases of suspected appendicitis. Cases of suspected appendicitis treated by the laparoscopic approach in a single institution over a 10-year period were reviewed (1997-2007). The objectives were to evaluate the immediate complications of the procedure and the outcome of pregnancies including foetal loss and preterm delivery.

RESULTS

Retrospective analysis of 45 consecutive cases of suspected appendicitis during pregnancy was carried out. Forty-two patients (93%) had a preoperative ultrasound, of which 13 (33%) confirmed an acute appendicitis. Out of 45 cases, 15 (33%) had the surgical procedure during the first trimester, 22 (49%) in the second and 8 (18%) in the third. Two (4%) patients had major complications (intra-abdominal abscess and uterine perforation) and two others (4%) had minor complications (cystitis and ileus). No patients underwent delivery in the month following surgery and there was no foetal loss in the follow-up. Three (8.1%) patients delivered prior to 35 weeks' gestation and 18.1% delivered before term (<37 weeks). As previously reported, a high rate of normal appendix (33%) was found at surgery. No significant differences were found in rates of preterm delivery, adverse outcome or operative time between trimesters of pregnancy at the time of surgery. Mean operative time was 49 +/- 19 min.

DISCUSSION

This large series from a single institution shows a low rate of preterm delivery and absence of foetal loss after laparoscopic appendectomy. Regardless of trimester, the low rate of complication makes it a valuable option for pregnant patients with suspicion of acute appendicitis. The rate of normal appendectomies remaining high, efforts have to be made towards new diagnostic modalities to lower the negative appendectomy rate in this specific population.

Diagnosis and laparoscopic treatment of surgical diseases during pregnancy: an evidence-based review

Treatment of surgical disease in the gravid patient requires a unique and careful approach where safety of the mother and fetus are both considered. Approaches to diagnosis and therapy of surgical disease in the gravid patient are increasingly clarified and defined in the literature. Laparoscopy, once described as contraindicated in pregnancy, has been steadily accepted and applied as data supporting its safety and use have accumulated. An extensive review of the literature was performed to define the use of laparoscopy in pregnancy. Diagnoses for independent surgical diseases as well as imaging modalities and techniques during pregnancy are reviewed. Preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative management of the pregnant patient are described and evaluated with focus on use of laparoscopy. Literature supporting safety and efficacy of laparoscopy in cholecystectomy, appendectomy, solid organ resection, and oophorectomy in the gravid patient is outlined. Based on level of evidence, this review includes recommendations specific to surgical approach, trimester of pregnancy, patient positioning, port placement, insufflation pressure, monitoring, venous thromboembolic prophylaxis, obstetric consultation, and use of tocolytics in the pregnant patient.

Liver disease in pregnancy

Abnormal liver tests occur in 3%-5% of pregnancies, with many potential causes, including coincidental liver disease (most commonly viral hepatitis or gallstones) and underlying chronic liver disease. However, most liver dysfunction in pregnancy is pregnancy-related and caused by 1 of the 5 liver diseases unique to the pregnant state: these fall into 2 main categories depending on their association with or without preeclampsia. The preeclampsia-associated liver diseases are preeclampsia itself, the hemolysis (H), elevated liver tests (EL), and low platelet count (LP) (HELLP) syndrome, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Hyperemesis gravidarum and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy have no relationship to preeclampsia. Although still enigmatic, there have been recent interesting advances in understanding of these unique pregnancy-related liver diseases. Hyperemesis gravidarum is intractable, dehydrating vomiting in the first trimester of pregnancy; 50% of patients with this condition have liver dysfunction. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy is pruritus and elevated bile acids in the second half of pregnancy, accompanied by high levels of aminotransferases and mild jaundice. Maternal management is symptomatic with ursodeoxycholic acid; for the fetus, however, this is a high-risk pregnancy requiring close fetal monitoring and early delivery. Severe preeclampsia itself is the commonest cause of hepatic tenderness and liver dysfunction in pregnancy, and 2%-12% of cases are further complicated by hemolysis (H), elevated liver tests (EL), and low platelet count (LP)-the HELLP syndrome. Immediate delivery is the only definitive therapy, but many maternal complications can occur, including abruptio placentae, renal failure, subcapsular hematomas, and hepatic rupture. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy is a sudden catastrophic illness occurring almost exclusively in the third trimester; microvesicular fatty infiltration of hepatocytes causes acute liver failure with coagulopathy and encephalopathy. Early diagnosis and immediate delivery are essential for maternal and fetal survival.

Laparoscopic versus open appendicectomy in pregnancy: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Acute appendicitis is the most common non-obstetric indication for surgical intervention in pregnant women. The benefits of a laparoscopic over an open approach to appendicectomy are well established in the non-pregnant population. Data on the optimal surgical approach to acute appendicitis in pregnant women are conflicting.

METHODS

A systematic review of reported cases of laparoscopic appendicectomy (LA) in pregnancy over the period 1990 to 2007. Twenty-eight articles documenting 637 cases of LA in pregnancy were included. Data on pregnancy outcome, patient characteristics, operative technique and peri-operative complications were analysed.

RESULTS

The rate of fetal loss following LA in pregnancy approaches 6% and is significantly higher than that following open appendicectomy. Fetal loss was highest in cases of complicated appendicitis. Incidence of preterm delivery appears lower in the LA group although this complication is likely to be under-reported in a significant proportion of cases. Trimester at the time of LA does not appear to influence complication rates. The negative appendicectomy rate in this series was 27%, which is higher than in the non-pregnant population. Complication rates following LA with negative appendicitis are as high as with simple appendicitis. Rates of entry-related complications were 2.8% in the Veress needle group and 0% in the Hasson open entry group. The overall rate of conversion to laparotomy was 1%. No difference was found in the preterm delivery rate between women who received prophylactic tocolysis and those who were not tocolysed.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic appendicectomy in pregnancy is associated with a low rate of intra-operative complications in all trimesters. However, LA in pregnancy is associated with a significantly higher rate of fetal loss compared to open appendicectomy. Rates of preterm delivery appear similar or slightly better following a laparoscopic approach. Open appendicectomy would appear to be the safer option for pregnant women for whom surgical intervention is indicated.

[Not Available]

This study was conducted to evaluate the safety of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) during pregnancy. Patients who underwent LC were selected from several hospital databases, only six were performed during pregnancy. In this series, one of the two patients who had LC in the first trimester underwent elective termination of pregnancy while the other one gave birth to a term child normally. Half of the four who had the second trimester LC had normal deliveries at term whereas for the other two cesarean section was performed. None of our patients underwent LC in the third trimester. The findings of the present study suggest LC to be a safe procedure performed during the first and second trimester of pregnancy.

Acute pancreatitis and pregnancy: a 10-year single center experience

BACKGROUND

Acute pancreatitis in pregnancy is rare. We report our institutional therapeutic approaches to this disease and its effect on maternal and fetal outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective review of medical records of pregnant women admitted to Brigham and Women's Hospital between 1996 and 2006.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients, presenting with 34 episodes of acute pancreatitis were identified. Most attacks (56%) occurred in the second trimester. Twelve patients had biliary pancreatitis. Three had pancreatitis secondary to other causes and six had "undetermined" etiologies. Of those with biliary pancreatitis, six underwent cholecystectomy; in a third of these cases, initial conservative therapy had failed. The other six patients underwent endoscopic sphincterotomy (n=2) or conservative therapy (n=4). Fifty percent of the patients with biliary pancreatitis managed conservatively had a recurrent episode of pancreatitis vs none in the cholecystectomy group. There was no significant difference in length of hospital stay between the three treatment groups (cholecystectomy, sphincterotomy, and conservative therapy). No maternal deaths were observed; there were four preterm labors and one fetal loss.

CONCLUSION

If treated conservatively, pregnant patients with biliary pancreatitis appear to have a high recurrence rate. Early surgical intervention is appropriate, safe, and does not increase the length of hospital stay.

Laparoscopic appendectomy during pregnancy: between personal experiences and scientific evidence

BACKGROUND

Although laparoscopic appendectomy is a safe and effective procedure for management of acute appendicitis, data about the feasibility and safety during pregnancy are limited. We aimed to study our experience in this field and to review the scientific evidence available.

STUDY DESIGN

All patients undergoing laparoscopic appendectomy during pregnancy, from January 2003 to December 2005, were included. Medical files were reviewed retrospectively. In addition, 133 cases from the literature were reviewed. General features of the cases, surgical technique details, and outcomes were analyzed.

RESULTS

All laparoscopic procedures were completed without conversion to open operation. No substantial hemodynamic or gasometric changes were detected during the procedures. Tocolytic medication was not administered in any patient. All patients were discharged from hospital within the first 48 postoperative hours, and no complications were recorded during this period or in the followup. All newborns had an adequate weight for gestational age, satisfactory parameters of well-being at birth, and an uneventful development after 1-year followup.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic appendectomy during pregnancy is as effective and safe as the conventional approach and has all the benefits of minimally invasive operation, provided that specific recommendations for these types of patients are strictly followed. It must be mentioned that there is only limited scientific evidence to support this statement.

Retroperitoneoscopic nephrectomy for giant hydronephrosis in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

A 32-year-old primiparous woman presented with a painful left-sided giant hydronephrotic kidney secondary to pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction (PUJO).

INVESTIGATIONS

Renal ultrasonography, intravenous urography and MAG-3 renography.

DIAGNOSIS

Symptomatic non-functioning left PUJO in first trimester.

MANAGEMENT

Following counselling, the patient had an uncomplicated retroperitoneoscopic nephrectomy at 9 weeks' gestation for symptom relief and to prevent future risks to both mother and fetus during the remainder of the pregnancy. She had an uneventful recovery and delivered a healthy 3.2 kg male at term per vaginum.