Development of oxidised and heat–moisture treated potato starch film

Development and characterization of dual-modified yam (Dioscorea rotundata) starch-based films

The current consumer demand for fresh food and the interest in caring for the environment have driven the development of biodegradable film packaging to replace synthetic films to preserve the integrity of food. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of starch modifications (oxidized, cross-linked, and dual: oxidized/cross-linked), starch concentration (1 and 2%), and glycerol concentration (5 and 15%) on water vapor permeability (WVP), mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation), optical, and structural properties of films based on “hawthorn” yam starch. The WVP of the films was 4.4 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 1.5 × 10⁻⁹ g/m∗s∗Pa, where the films with oxidized yam starch showed a 58.04% reduction concerning the native starch. The tensile strength of oxidized yam starch films showed a decrease of 17.51% with an increase in glycerol concentration. For the 1% starch concentration, elongation increased by 17.03% when the glycerol concentration was increased from 5 to 15%. Modification of starch, starch concentration, and glycerol have a significant effect on the barrier, mechanical, physical, and structural properties of films made with yam starch, where films made with oxidized yam starches at a concentration of 1% starch and 5% glycerol showed the best responses of the properties evaluated.

Use of Chia by-Products Obtained from the Extraction of Seeds Oil for the Development of New Biodegradable Films for the Agri-Food Industry

Chia oil production and consumption have increased in recent years, producing a large number of by-products that had low utility or economic value for the industry. In this study, a biodegradable film was successfully prepared from mucilage extracted from defatted chia flour. The physical-chemical, optical, water vapor permeability (WVP), and mechanical properties of films made with two different types of chia matrixes (defatted flour and whole seeds) were determined. In general, defatted chia flour films exhibited a slightly reddish and yellowish color but still transparent in appearance, were good visible light barriers, and had better mechanical properties than films made with whole seeds. They also have greater WVP values than synthetic films such as low-density polyethylene. The results of the present study demonstrated that defatted chia flour can be used in producing edible films with improved quality characteristics.

Carioca bean starch upon synergic modification: characteristics and films properties

BACKGROUND

The use of damaged beans for starch isolation comprises an end-use alternative for a product that is not accepted by the consumer. For that reason, isolation and modification of Carioca bean starch should be explored and evaluated as a suitable source for biodegradable material. The present study aimed to evaluate the synergism of physical and chemical modifications on Carioca bean starch with respect to improving the properties of biodegradable films. A heat-moisture treatment (HMT) followed by oxidation by sodium hypochlorite was performed and vice versa.

RESULTS

Synergism was noted in the starch properties compared to the single modification. When the oxidation was applied first, a higher amylose and carbonyl content was noted. HMT, isolated and as a second modification, caused a more pronounced effect on viscosity profile than the oxidized starch, with an increase in paste temperature and a decrease in viscosity, breakdown and final viscosity.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in the present study reflect a decrease in water vapor permeability, although a higher tensile strength was noted when oxidation was applied, as a single and as a first modification. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modifying Effects of Physical Processes on Starch and Dietary Fiber Content of Foodstuffs

Carbohydrates are one of the most important nutrients in human consumption. The digestible part of carbohydrates has a significant role in maintaining the energy status of the body and the non-digestible parts like dietary fibers have specific nutritional functions. One of the key issues of food processing is how to influence the technological and nutritional properties of carbohydrates to meet modern dietary requirements more effectively, considering particularly the trends in the behavior of people and food-related health issues. Physical processing methods have several advantages compared to the chemical methods, where chemical reagents, such as acids or enzymes, are used for the modification of components. Furthermore, in most cases, these is no need to apply them supplementarily in the technology, only a moderate modification of current technology can result in significant changes in dietary properties. This review summarizes the novel results about the nutritional and technological effects of physical food processing influencing the starch and dietary fiber content of plant-derived foodstuffs.

Acorn flour properties depending on the production method and laboratory baking test results: A review

Acorns, the fruit of the oak, have long been an important source of food in different cultures around the world. Despite their long culinary tradition, they have become under-appreciated. Due to their high starch content, acorns are mainly used for flour production, and acorn flour is considered as a replacement for cereal flour in a wide range of applications in food production. This study reviewed the published literature concerning acorn flour production and composition as well as the possibility of using acorn flour in the most popular flour-based products such as bread, cake, and cookies. The study also presents the advantages resulting from acorn flour incorporation to the human diet and acorn flour influence on the quality of bread and pastry products. This review found that acorn flour is characterized by a lack of gluten proteins and a high content of fiber and minerals as well as the presence of polyphenols with antioxidant properties. However, negative impact of its larger amount on the dough rheological features and product physical properties has been emphasized in many studies. The researchers recommend the incorporation of acorn flour up to a level of 15% in formulating composite flour for bread production. However, the literature data indicates that acorn flour substitution for pastry production depends on the product type and ranges from 10 to even 60%. It is also highlighted that the application of acorn flour into gluten-free products is particularly favorable from a nutritional point of view.

Effect of acetylated starch on the development of peanut skin-cassava starch foams

Cassava starch was modified by acetylation to obtain modified starches with a degree of substitution (DS) of 0.5 and 1.5. The acetylated cassava starches presented a reduction in temperature gelatinization and enthalpy, water solubility, and power swelling, in addition to a loss of crystallinity compared to native cassava starches. Acetylated cassava starch was used to the development of foams based on native cassava starch, 24% (w/w) of peanut skin, and 13% (w/w) of glycerol. It was used blends of native cassava starch and acetylated cassava starch with ratios of 100/0, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, and 60/40. The foams containing acetylated cassava starch with DS = 0.5 exhibited a reduction in water absorption capacity (WAC) for water contact time of 30 min. Foams containing acetylated cassava starch with DS = 1.5 did not show a significant difference in WAC compared to foams made using only native cassava starch. The use of 30% (w/w) of acetylated cassava starch, independently of DS (0.5 or 1.5), resulted in faster degradation of foams than those without modified starches.

Effects of pullulanase debranching on the properties of potato starch-lauric acid complex and potato starch-based film

The effects of different debranching time on the properties of potato starch and its films were evaluated. Potato starch granules were debranched with pullulanase for 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 or 2.0 h. The effects of pullulanase debranching treatment on the chain-length distributions of amylopectin were analysed by high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC), which proved that the shorter debranching treatment generated more linear chains with favourable lengths to facilitate the formation of potato starch-lauric acid complexes. The debranched starch-lipid complexes showed higher lauric acid content than that of the untreated sample. X-ray diffraction showed that the diffraction intensity of the debranched sample was stronger than that of the undebranched sample, and when the debranching time was >1.5 h, the diffraction intensity and relative crystallinity of the complexes decreased. The sample exhibited a high melting enthalpy (ΔH) under the pullulanase debranching treatment for 1.5 h. Scanning electron microscope data indicated that the surface of the composite film was flatter after the debranching treatment and that the films exhibited the lowest water vapour permeability and highest tensile strength after the treatment time for 1.5 h.

Effects of electron beam irradiation on the properties of waxy maize starch and its films

Waxy maize starch was irradiated under different doses of radiation (2-30 kGy), and starch physicochemical properties were analysed. Films were subsequently produced from native and irradiated waxy maize starches and their properties were tested. The starch molecular weight markedly decreased with increasing irradiation dose. And the branch chain length, melting temperature, melting enthalpy, and relative crystallinity decreased slightly, especially at an irradiation dose below 15 kGy. This indicated that more α-1,6-glucosidic bonds than α-1,4-glucosidic bonds were cleaved by a low dose of irradiation; hence, more linear chains were released. Films prepared from 10 kGy irradiated waxy maize starch displayed enhanced mechanical properties and increased solubility, owing to a moderate increase in linear starch chains and a decrease in starch molecular weight, respectively. The resulting rapidly-dissolvable films from irradiated waxy maize starch have potential for use in instant food packaging.

Effects of selected bleaching agents on the functional and structural properties of orange albedo starch-based bioplastics

Recent research has proven that starch offers a wide range of industrial, commercial, and utility applications if they are optimally processed and refined. In this study, the effect of hydrogen peroxide (HP), sodium persulfite, peracetic acid (PAA), and sodium perborate (SPB) bleaching agents on the physiochemical, surface, mechanical, and flow properties were investigated. The various bleached starch bioplastics were characterized using Fourier transform infrared, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and thermogravimetric analysis. Hydroxyl and carbonyl (C=O) stretching were seen for HP- and PAA-bleached starch bioplastics at 3285 and 1736 and 3265 and 1698 cm−1, respectively. The C=O band was absent for SPB-treated starch, whereas the C=S band was seen on sodium hyposulfite (SHS)-treated starch. The morphologies of starch were retained with little agglomerations, except for HP-treated starch bioplastics with a morphology change. HP-treated starch had the highest percentage crystallinity (66%) and the highest thermal stability (74% weight loss), whereas PAA-treated starch had the lowest percentage crystallinity (34%) and the lowest thermal stability (88% weight loss). HP- and SHS-bleached starch bioplastics had the best surface, mechanical, and expansion properties.

Rheological, physical, and mechanical properties of chicken skin gelatin films incorporated with potato starch

The aim of this study was to investigate the rheological, physical, and mechanical properties of chicken skin gelatin film forming solutions (FFSs) and films incorporated with potato starch. Chicken skin gelatin-based FFSs with various potato starch concentrations (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10%, w/w) were prepared via casting technique. The dynamic viscoelastic properties of FFS were measured, and film characterization in terms of physical and mechanical properties was conducted. Potato starch incorporation with chicken skin gelatin-based FFS resulted in improvement of viscous behavior (G″ > G'). As potato starch concentration increased, the tensile strength, elongation at break, and elastic modulus values of chicken skin gelatin-based films also increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, increasing the concentration of potato starch caused incremental changes in water vapor permeability and melting temperatures (T m), but a reduction in water solubility (p < 0.05). In addition, the surface smoothness and internal structure of composite films improved via potato starch incorporation. The incorporation of potato starch was also found to provide good barrier properties against ultraviolet and visible light, but did not significantly influence the transparency values of composite films. Overall, chicken skin gelatin film with 6% potato starch concentration incorporation was the most promising composite film, since it was found to exhibit optimal performance in terms of physical properties.

Antimicrobial Carvacrol Incorporated in Flaxseed Gum-Sodium Alginate Active Films to Improve the Quality Attributes of Chinese Sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus) during Cold Storage

The objective of this research was to explore the antimicrobial activity and mechanism of carvacrol against Vibrio Parahemolyticus, Shewanella putrefaciens, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas fluorescens and evaluate the effect of the addition of carvacrol/β-cyclodextrin emulsions to flaxseed gum (FSG)-sodium alginate (SA) edible films on the preservation of Chinese sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus) fillets during refrigerated storage. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of carvacrol against V. parahemolyticus, S. putrefaciens, S. aureus and P. fluorescens were 0.5, 0.5, 0.125, and 0.5 mg/mL, respectively. Alkaline phosphatase activity assay, nucleotide and protein leakage, and scanning electron microscope demonstrated that carvacrol damaged the external structure of the tested bacterial cells causing leakage of cytoplasmic components. At the same time, when FSG-SA films containing carvacrol used as coating agents for Chinese sea bass fillets cold storage, FSG-SA films containing 1.0 or 2.0 mg/mL carvacrol could significantly reduce TVB-N content, K-value, the degree of microbial deterioration and maintain quality of sea bass fillets according to organoleptic evaluation results.

Preparation, properties, and structural characterization of β-glucan/pullulan blend films

This study investigates the physico-mechanical and structural properties of β-glucan (BG)/pullulan (PUL) composite edible films successfully prepared with 0-0.3 g of BG. Results demonstrated that BG addition significantly increases the elongation at break (p < 0.05), tensile strength, and water dissolution time of the resulting films. The transparency of the 0.2PUL:0.1BG film and the oxygen barrier property of the 0.15PUL:0.15BG film decreased remarkably compared with those of the plain films (0.3PUL:0BG and 0PUL:0.3BG) and other composite films (p < 0.05). FTIR indicated hydrogen bonding interactions between PUL and BG molecules, and microstructural observations showed that aggregated BG is homogeneously dispersed in the PUL continuous matrix. Among the films tested, the thermal stability of the 0.15PUL:0.15BG film was the best. A PUL:BG mixing ratio of 0.15:0.15 is thus suggested to provide the best film properties. This research offers an alternative method to improve PUL-based edible films.

Development and characterization of biodegradable films from whey protein concentrate, psyllium husk and oxidized, crosslinked, dual-modified lotus rhizome starch composite

BACKGROUND

The combined effect of variously chemically modified lotus rhizome starch, whey protein concentrate, psyllium husk and glycerol was evaluated on developed biodegradable films.

RESULTS

Dual-modified lotus rhizome starch composite films presented minimum solubility and water vapor permeability and maximum tensile strength among native and modified starch composite films. Elongation at break of dual-modified starch composite films (FLCOS₁ , FLCOS₂ ) was found to be a maximum, whereas a decrease was observed for FLCOS₃ . Oxidized lotus rhizome starch composite films were the most transparent among native and modified starch composite films, whereas crosslinked lotus rhizome starch composite films were the least transparent. Scanning electron microscopy indicated a homogeneous compact surface of oxidized starch composite films, whereas troughs were observed in crosslinked and dual-modified starch composite films. Using whey protein concentrate, psyllium husk and glycerol without any phase separation, smoother films and with compact microstructures were produced. Fourier transform infrared analysis revealed additional peaks for modified starch films, confirming greater interaction among starch and film-forming components, whereas amorphous structure was indicated from X-ray diffraction results of modified starch composite films.

CONCLUSIONS

Owing to various properties of modified starches, these films find application in edible contact packages and can better be used for products where higher structural integrity and lower water vapor transmission are needed. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Physicochemical, thermal and structural properties of heat moisture treated common buckwheat starches

Common buckwheat starch modified by heat moisture treatment at different temperatures was analysed for functional, pasting, structural, thermal, gel textural and morphological properties. Heat moisture treatment decreased swelling power, solubility and oil absorption capacity while amplified water absorption capacity of buckwheat starch. Lower whiteness index with higher a* and b* values were observed for treated starches. Modified starches showed increased paste clarity and reduced syneresis. A declining order of paste clarity and freeze-thaw stability of native and treated starches was noticed during storage period. RVA analysis showed reduced viscosities (peak, trough, breakdown, final and setback viscosity) for hydrothermally treated starches. Increased gel hardness was observed for modified starches and starch sample treated at 85 °C produced the hardest gel. FTIR spectrums of native and treated starch samples showed peaks at similar wavenumbers. Micrographs revealed the polygonal shape of native starch granules with flat areas on surface. Increased agglomeration in heat moisture treated starch samples was noticed in scanned images of starches. X-ray diffraction analysis showed 'A' type crystalline pattern in native starch of common buckwheat and no alteration in crystalline pattern due to hydrothermal treatment was observed. Relative crystallinity of native buckwheat starch decreased during heat moisture treatment and the minimum value was recorded for starches treated at 85 °C. Differential scanning calorimetry showed raised gelatinisation temperatures (T_O, T_P and T_C) and reduced ΔH values for hydrothermal treated starches.

Physicochemical properties of the edible films from the blends of high methoxyl apple pectin and chitosan

Chitosan (CH) and pectin (PE) are considered as promising biomaterials in developing eco-friendly films due to their film-forming, biodegradable, and non-toxic characteristics, the films from pure CH or PE have obvious defects such as poor barrier and mechanical properties. In this study, the blend films of CH and PE at varying mass ratios were characterized. Structurally, numerous small pores evenly distributed in PE film while big caves unevenly scattered in CH film. CH film is semicrystalline but PE and blend films are totally amorphous, the two individual films presented comparable values in water content and solubility to blend films. The CH film showed lower water vapor permeability and surface wettability and these parameters of the blend films decreased with CH level, the blend films exhibited high transparence as PE film did, which is much higher than that of CH film. Mechanically, the PE film presented higher values in stretchability and tensile strength than CH film. Moreover, in a different blending ratios, synergistic effects were found with several characters of the CH/PE blend film, especially in transparence and mechanical properties. These synergistic effects were ascribed to the intermolecular electrostatic interactions between CH and PE.

Characteristics of starch from different bean genotypes and its effect on biodegradable films

BACKGROUND

Starches from four common bean genotypes were characterized and used in the production of biodegradable films. Starches were characterized by their swelling power, solubility, amylose content, granule morphology, relative crystallinity, thermal and pasting properties, and susceptibility to α-amylase hydrolysis. Films were characterized according to their morphology, mechanical and water vapor barrier properties, whiteness and opacity.

RESULT

Depending on the common bean genotype, a great variation on starch properties was found, which, in turn, clearly impacted on the characteristics of the starch-based films. Starches from BRS Pitanga and BRS Pérola genotypes exhibited the highest amylose content and the lowest swelling capabilities. Bean starch from the IPR Uirapuru genotype presented granules with an irregular surface and shape. Starches from IPR Uirapuru and BRS Estilo genotypes provided well-structured biodegradable films, without the occurrence of fissures or cracks. Moreover, starch films containing starch from BRS Estilo genotype exhibited the highest flexibility, permeability and solubility.

CONCLUSION

The morphological, mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of films elaborated with common bean starch vary greatly as a function of the bean genotype used for starch production. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of dual modification on properties of biodegradable crosslinked-oxidized starch and oxidized-crosslinked starch films

Due to poor properties of biodegradable native starch (NS) film; in this work, dual-modified starch films i.e. crosslinked-oxidized starch (C-OS) and oxidized-crosslinked starch (O-CS) films were prepared and compared to single-modified starch i.e. crosslinked starch (CS) and oxidized starch (OS) films. All modified starch films were oxidized and crosslinked using hydrogen peroxide and boric acid by casting technique. Degree of crystallinity and swelling behavior of both dual-modified starch films were found to decrease. Moreover, O-CS film showed smoother fractured morphology than C-OS and NS films. Both C-OS and O-CS films presented not only high stress at maximum load and Young's modulus but also high strain at maximum load, as compared to single-modified film. Furthermore, water vapor permeability, thermal property and biodegradability of all modified films were also studied.

Biodegradable Transparent Substrate Based on Edible Starch-Chitosan Embedded with Nature-Inspired Three-Dimensionally Interconnected Conductive Nanocomposites for Wearable Green Electronics

Electronic waste (E-waste) contain large environmental contaminants such as toxic heavy metals and hazardous chemicals. These contaminants would migrate into drinking water or food chains and pose a serious threat to environment and human health. Biodegradable green electronics has great potential to address the issue of E-waste. Here, we report on a novel biodegradable and flexible transparent electrode, integrating three-dimensionally (3D) interconnected conductive nanocomposites into edible starch-chitosan-based substrates. Starch and chitosan are extracted from abundant and inexpensive potato and crab shells, respectively. Nacre-inspired interface designs are introduced to construct a 3D interconnected single wall carbon nanotube (SCNT)-pristine graphene (PG)-conductive polymer network architecture. The inorganic one-dimensional SCNT and two-dimensional PG sheets are tightly cross-linked together at the junction interface by long organic conductive poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) chains. The formation of a 3D continuous SCNT-PG-PEDOT conductive network leads to not only a low sheet resistance but also a superior flexibility. The flexible transparent electrode possesses an excellent optoelectronic performance: typically, a sheet resistance of 46 Ω/sq with a transmittance of 83.5% at a typical wavelength of 550 nm. The sheet resistance of the electrode slightly increased less than 3% even after hundreds of bending cycles. The lightweight flexible and biocompatible transparent electrode could conform to skin topography or any other arbitrary surface naturally. The edible starch-chitosan substrate-based transparent electrodes could be biodegraded in lysozyme solution rapidly at room temperature without producing any toxic residues. SCNT-PG-PEDOT can be recycled via a membrane process for further fabrication of conductive and reinforcement composites. This high-performance biodegradable transparent electrode is a promising material for next-generation wearable green optoelectronics, transient electronics, and edible electronics.

Combined effects of octenylsuccination and oregano essential oil on sweet potato starch films with an emphasis on water resistance

The perishable character of moist food products demands packages with antimicrobial activity and water resistance. Oregano essential oil (OEO) and starch octenylsuccination were first jointly applied to formulate antimicrobial and water-resistant sweet potato starch films. The results showed that octenylsuccination powerfully retarded the coalescence of oil droplets in film casting process and favoured their homogeneity in the dried films. OEO incorporation dose-dependently conferred antimicrobial activity upon the films, which was further enhanced by octenylsuccination to some degree. For a specific film, comparable inhibitory efficacies were observed against S. aureus and E. coli. Either octenylsuccination or OEO incorporation alone decreased film strength, rigidity, water content, water solubility and water vapor permeability while increasing film extensibility to a less degree than their combination. More importantly, synergistic effects between OEO incorporation and octenylsuccination were concluded on film water content, water solubility and extensibility.

Characterization of starch-based bioplastics from jackfruit seed plasticized with glycerol

Biodegradable films based on starches from different botanical sources exhibited physicochemical and functional properties which were related with the starch characteristics. However, had inadequate mechanical properties and were hard and brittle. In this research, jackfruit seed starch plasticized with glycerol were developed and characterized. The starch and glycerol concentrations ranged from 2 to 6% w/w and 20 to 60 g/100 g starch, respectively. Bioplastics were obtained by the casting method and characterized in terms of color, mechanical properties, solubility, water vapor permeability (WVP), morphology and free energy of the hydrophobic interaction. Electronic micrographics showed the presence of some intact starch granules. The bioplastics were hydrophilic and those of 6% starch and 40% glycerol were the most hydrophilic ([Formula: see text] = 41.35 mJ m-1). The solubility of the films presented a direct relationship with the starch concentration ranging from 16.42 to 23.26%. Increased opacity and color difference were observed with increasing starch concentration. The WVP ranged from 1.374 × 10-3 to 3.07 × 10-4 g m/day m2 which was positively related with the concentration of starch and glycerol. Tensile strength, percent elongation and Young's Modulus indicated that the jackfruit starch and glycerol provided a film with good mechanical properties. The results replaced that jackfruit starch can be used to develop films, with low opacity, moderate WVP and relatively high mechanical stability, by using glycerol in the gelatinized starch dispersions.

Effect of blueberry agro-industrial waste addition to corn starch-based films for the production of a pH-indicator film

Intelligent packaging is an emerging area of food technology that can provide better preservation and be of further convenience for consumers. It is recommended that biodegradable materials be used to develop low-impact designs for better packaging, which could benefit the environment by simply expanding their use to new areas. In this work, corn starch, glycerol and blueberry powder (with and without prior fruit bleaching) were used to produce films by casting. Blueberry powder, a co-product from juice processing, which is rich in anthocyanins, was added in the films to evaluate its potential as a colorimetric indicator, due to the ability of anthocyanin to change color when placed in an acidic or basic environment. After the films were immersed in different buffer solutions, visual color changes were observed, where the films became reddish at acidic pH and bluish at basic pH. The ΔE* values were greater than 3, suggesting a visually perceptible change to the human eye. The samples with fruit bleaching (CB) were visually darker (lower luminance values), while the samples without bleaching (SB) had a lighter color and higher brightness, represented by larger L* values. These results indicate the potential of blueberry powder as a pH indicator for intelligent food packaging or even for sensing food deterioration.

Morphological, mechanical, barrier and properties of films based on acetylated starch and cellulose from barley

BACKGROUND

Biodegradable films of native or acetylated starches with different concentrations of cellulose fibers (0%, 10% and 20%) were prepared. The films were characterized by morphological, mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties.

RESULT

The tensile strength of the acetylated starch film was lower than those of the native starch film, without fibers. The addition of fibers increased the tensile strength and decreased the elongation and the moisture of native and acetylated starches films. The acetylated starch film showed higher water solubility when compared to native starch film. The addition of cellulose fibers reduced the water solubility of the acetylated starch film. The films reinforced with cellulose fiber exhibited a higher initial decomposition temperature and thermal stability.

CONCLUSION

The mechanical, barrier, solubility, and thermal properties are factors which direct the type of the film application in packaging for food products. The films elaborated with acetylated starches of low degree of substitution were not effective in a reduction of the water vapor permeability. The addition of the cellulose fiber in acetylated and native starches films can contribute to the development of more resistant films to be applied in food systems that need to maintain their integrity. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.