Impact of different pan-frying conditions on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines and sensory quality in fried bacon

Domestic Cooking of Muscle Foods: Impact on Composition of Nutrients and Contaminants

Meat and fish are muscle foods rich in valuable nutrients, such as high-quality proteins, vitamins, and minerals, and, in the case of fish, also unsaturated fatty acids. The escalation of meat and fish production has increased the occurrence of pesticide and antibiotic residues, as result of pest control on feed crops, and antibiotics used to fight infections in animals. Meat and fish are usually cooked to enrich taste, soften texture, increase safety, and improve nutrient digestibility. However, the impact of cooking on nutritional properties and formation of deleterious compounds must be understood. This review summarizes studies, published in the last decade, that have focused on how domestic cooking affects: (i) composition of nutrients (protein, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals); (ii) antibiotic and pesticide residue contents; and (iii) the formation of cooking-induced contaminants (heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and thermal degradation products of antibiotics and pesticides). Cooking affects the nutritional composition of meat and fish; frying is the cooking method that causes the greatest impact. Cooking may reduce the pesticide and antibiotic residues present in contaminated raw meat and fish; however, it may result in the formation of degradation products of unknown identity and toxicity. Control of cooking time and temperature, use of antioxidant-rich marinades, and avoiding the dripping of fat during charcoal grilling can reduce the formation of cooking-induced contaminants.

Analysis of Heterocyclic Amines in Meat by the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe Method Coupled with LC-DAD-MS-MS

The traditional way to analyze heterocyclic amines (HAs) is time-consuming and uses large amounts of solvents. The objective of this study is to develop a quick and simultaneous analysis method for multiple types of HAs contained in meat products. Results showed that 20 HAs and 1 internal standard (4,7,8-TriMeIQx) can be separated within 30 min using an Inspire C18 column and a gradient solvent system containing 10 mM ammonium acetate (pH 2.9) and acetonitrile. This process resulted in a high degree of separation. Using acetonitrile with 1% acetic acid as an extraction solvent, followed by primary and secondary amine, MgSO₄, and C18EC as purified reagent, is highly suitable for extracting HAs using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe method (QuEChERS). Tandem mass spectrometry with selected reaction monitoring mode were used for analysis, which indicated reasonable recovery (58.9-117.4%) for all 20 types of HAs along with limits of detection and quantification in the range of 0.003-0.05 and 0.01-0.05 ng/g, respectively.

Formation of heterocyclic amines in Chinese marinated meat: effects of animal species and ingredients (rock candy, soy sauce and rice wine)

BACKGROUND

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are one type of neo-formed contaminants in protein-rich foods during heat processing. Recently, accumulative studies have focused on the formation of HAs in Western foods. However, there is little knowledge about the occurrence of HAAs in traditional Chinese foods. The objective of this study was to determinate the contents of main HAs in traditional marinated meat products by UPLC-MS/MS, and to investigate the effects of animal species and the ingredients (soy sauce, rock candy, and rice wine) on the formation of HAAs in marinated meats.

RESULTS

Five HAs - 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]-quinolone (IQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQ), 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Norharman) and l-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Harman) - were detected in 12 marinated meats, but 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) was only found in three chicken marinates. The animal species and ingredients (soy sauce, rock candy and rice wine) have significant influence on the formation of HAAs in meat marinates. Beef had the highest content of total HAAs compared with pork, mutton and chicken. Meanwhile, soy sauce contributed to the formation of HAAs more greatly than rock candy, soy sauce, and rice wine.

CONCLUSION

Choice of raw materials and optimisation of ingredients recipe should be become a critical point to control the HAAs formation in marinated meats. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characteristics of Hanwoo cattle and health implications of consuming highly marbled Hanwoo beef

This review addresses the unique characteristics of Hanwoo cattle and potential health implications of consuming highly marbled Hanwoo beef. The Hanwoo breed has high genetic potential for accumulating intramuscular fat (IMF) and producing highly marbled beef. The high level of marbling is achieved through increasing levels of concentrated feed with an extended finishing period. In response to consumer preferences, the level of marbling of Hanwoo beef has been increasing. The IMF content can be manipulated depending on the feeding duration, finishing diet, and genotype. On the other hand, some consumers are expressing concern regarding the consumption of too much animal fat. This review discusses the potential of Hanwoo beef as a dietary source of heart-healthy fats. Highly marbled Hanwoo beef has a high proportion of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) due to the presence of abundant oleic acid. Literature indicates that MUFAs are heart-healthy dietary fats because they can lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol while increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol. Also, recent clinical trials have indicated that highly marbled beef does not increase LDL-cholesterol and consistently increases HDL-cholesterol. Finally, the current work emphasizes that consumption of high oleic acid Hanwoo beef might potentially reduce risk factors for cardiovascular disease, and may become accepted as a healthy well-being food.

Presence of heterocyclic amine carcinogens in home-cooked and fast-food camel meat burgers commonly consumed in Saudi Arabia

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are formed by cooking protein-rich foods, for instance, meat and fish, and are listed as possible human carcinogens. In the present study, the presence of five potential HCAs (IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP) in cooked camel meat burgers was analyzed for the first time. The analysis was performed in home-cooked and fast-food burger samples containing food additives. The applied cooking technique for the home-cooked samples was pan frying for a controlled cooking time and temperature. In the control cooked meat samples (samples that contained no food additives), the concentrations of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP ranged from 2.47 ng/g to 4.89 ng/g, whereas IQ and MeIQ were found to be below the limit of quantification. The concentrations contents of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP in the home-cooked and fast-food samples ranged from 1.52 ng/g to 2.13 ng/g and 1.85 ng/g to 3.46 ng/g, respectively. IQ and MeIQ were not detected in either type of sample. In comparison to the control samples, the home-cooked and fast-food samples produced lower levels of HCAs. Such observations could result from the existence of antioxidants in incorporated food additives, which induce pro-oxidative effects with the successive formation and/or scavenging of free radicals.

Chitosan Film Containing an Iron Complex: Synthesis and Prospects for Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HAAs) Recognition

Hybrid organic-inorganic materials have been seen as a promising approach to produce sensors for the detection and/or recognition of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs). This work shows the synthesis of a hybrid film as a result of the incorporation of [Fe(CN)₅(NH₃)]^3- into chitosan (CS); CS-[(CN)₅Fe(NH₃)]^3-. The sensitivity of CS-[(CN)₅Fe(NH₃)]^3- toward HAA-like species was evaluated by using pyrazine (pz) as probe molecule in vapor phase by means of electrochemistry and spectroscopic techniques. The crystallinity (SEM-EDS and XRD) decrease of CS-[(CN)₅Fe(NH₃)]^3- in comparison to CS was assigned to the disturbance of the hydrogen bond network within the polymer. Such conclusion was reinforced by the water contact angle measurements. The results presented in this work indicate physical and intermolecular interactions, mostly hydrogen bond, between [Fe(CN)₅(NH₃)]^3- and CS, where the complex is likely trapped in the polymer with its sixth coordination site available for substitution reactions.

Consumer Acceptability of Intramuscular Fat

Fat in meat greatly improves eating quality, yet many consumers avoid visible fat, mainly because of health concerns. Generations of consumers, especially in the English-speaking world, have been convinced by health authorities that animal fat, particularly saturated or solid fat, should be reduced or avoided to maintain a healthy diet. Decades of negative messages regarding animal fats has resulted in general avoidance of fatty cuts of meat. Paradoxically, low fat or lean meat tends to have poor eating quality and flavor and low consumer acceptability. The failure of low-fat high-carbohydrate diets to curb "globesity" has prompted many experts to re-evaluate of the place of fat in human diets, including animal fat. Attitudes towards fat vary dramatically between and within cultures. Previous generations of humans sought out fatty cuts of meat for their superior sensory properties. Many consumers in East and Southeast Asia have traditionally valued more fatty meat cuts. As nutritional messages around dietary fat change, there is evidence that attitudes towards animal fat are changing and many consumers are rediscovering and embracing fattier cuts of meat, including marbled beef. The present work provides a short overview of the unique sensory characteristics of marbled beef and changing consumer preferences for fat in meat in general.

Mitigation strategies of acrylamide, furans, heterocyclic amines and browning during the Maillard reaction in foods

The Maillard reaction (MR) occurs widely during food manufacture and storage, through controlled or uncontrolled pathways. Its consequences are ambiguous depending on the nature and processing of the food products. The MR is often used by food manufacturer to develop appealing aromas, colour or texture in food products (cereal based food, coffee, meat…). However, despite some positive aspects, the MR could decrease the nutritional value of food, generate potentially harmful compounds (e.g. acrylamide, furans, heterocyclic amines) or modify aroma or colour although it is not desired (milk, fruit juice). This paper presents a review of the different solutions available to control or moderate the MR in various food products from preventive to removal methods. A brief reminder of the role and influence of the MR on food quality and safety is also provided.

Cooking methods and the formation of PhIP (2-Amino, 1-methyl, 6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine) in the crust of the habitually consumed meat in Argentina

Content of carcinogenic molecules like, 2-Amino, 1-methyl, 6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine in meals is one of the main mutagenic substances formed during meat cooking, and it can be used as a dietary exposure marker. Our objective was to estimate the amount of PhIP consumed from habitual Argentinean diet, rich in red meats, comparing different cooking procedures and meat type. Samples (n = 240) of lean and fatty beef, chicken, pork, and fish were cooked using different methods: griddle, grill, sauté pan, and oven. Samples were: Overcooked, or cooked with a microbiologically suitable or "healthy technique" (HT). The PhIP was determined by HPLC-MS. Meats cooked using HT formed little crust amounts and PhIP was below the detection levels. In overcooked meats, large amounts of crust were formed in lean meats, fatty beef, fatty chicken and baked pork. PhIP was measured in lean meats sauted or cooked on a griddle, a method reaching temperatures until 250 °C.It was estimated that Argentine people eats about 12,268.0 ng/day of PhIP being these values above those tolerated limits for total dietary heterocyclic amines in some developed countries. Hence, cooking small meat portions, at medium temperature, avoiding prolonged cooking and preferring baked lean meats could be recommended as a healthier habit.

Inhibitory Effect of Rosa rugosa Tea Extract on the Formation of Heterocyclic Amines in Meat Patties at Different Temperatures

In previous studies, heterocyclic amines (HCAs) have been identified as carcinogenic and a risk factor for human cancer. Therefore, the present study was designed to identify bioactive natural products capable of controlling the formation of HCAs during cooking. For this purpose we have evaluated the effect of Rosa rugosa tea extract (RTE) on the formation of HCAs in ground beef patties fried at 160 °C or 220 °C. RTE is rich in phenolic compounds and capable of inhibiting the formation of free radicals. The pyrido[3,4-b]indole (norharman) and 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (harman) contents were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in RTE-treated patties at 220 °C. 9H-3-Amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole acetate (Trp-P-2) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido-[4,3-b]indole acetate (Trp-P-1) were not detected at 160 °C and were statistically (p < 0.01) reduced at 220 °C compared to the control. RTE remarkably inhibited the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) at 220 °C (p < 0.001) and at 160 °C (p < 0.05). 2-Amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC) and 2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]-indole (MeAαC) were only detected in the control group at 160 °C but were comparatively (p > 0.05) similar in the control and treated groups at 220 °C. 2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), and 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx) were not detected in any sample. Total HCAs were positively correlated with cooking loss. In the RTE-treated groups, 75% of the total HCAs were decreased at 160 °C and 46% at 220 °C, suggesting that RTE is effective at both temperatures and can be used during cooking at high temperatures to lessen the amount of HCAs formed.

Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Cooked Meat Products: Causes, Formation, Occurrence, and Risk Assessment

Meat products are sources of protein with high biological value and an essential source of other nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Heating processes cause food to become more appetizing with changes in texture, appearance, flavor, and chemical properties by the altering of protein structure and other ingredients. During heat treatment, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), potent mutagens/carcinogens, are formed due to the Maillard reaction. The HAAs are classified in at least 2 groups: thermic HAAs (100 to 300 °C) and pyrolytic HAAs (>300 °C). This review focuses on the parameters and precursors which affect the formation of HAAs: preparation, such as the marinating of meat, and cooking methods, including temperature, duration, and heat transfer, as well as levels of precursors. Additionally, factors are described subject to pH, and the type of meat and ingredients, such as added antioxidants, types of carbohydrates and amino acids, ions, fat, and other substances inhibiting or enhancing the formation of HAAs. An overview of the different analytical methods available is shown to determine the HAAs, including their preparation to clean up the sample prior to extraction. Epidemiological results and human daily intake of HAAs obtained from questionnaires show a relationship between the preference for very well-done meat products with increased HAA levels and an enhanced risk of the incidence of cancer, besides other carcinogens in the diet. The metabolic pathway of HAAs is governed by the activity of several enzymes leading to the formation of DNA adducts or HAA excretion and genetic sensitivity of individuals to the impact of HAAs on human cancer risk.

Heterocyclic aromatic amines in deep fried lamb meat: The influence of spices marination and sensory quality

The present study was focused to investigate the effect of selected spices (turmeric, torch ginger, lemongrass and curry leaves) on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs, IQx, MeIQ, MeIQx, DiMeIQx, IQ, harman, norharman, and AαC) in deep fried lamb meat. Meat samples were marinated with optimized levels of turmeric (4 %), 10 % each of torch ginger, lemon grass, curry leaves at medium (70 °C) and well done (80 °C) doneness temperatures. The concentration of HCAs in deep fried meat samples were analysed using LC-MS/MS technique. The results revealed that torch ginger (10 %) has reduced 74.8 % of Me1Qx (1.39 to 0.35 ng/g) at medium doneness, followed by the 64.7 % reduction, using curry leaves and turmeric at medium degree of doneness. Torch ginger has reduced 86.6 % of AαC (2.59 to 0.40 ng/g) at well done doneness. The most prevalence level of HCAs was found in deep fried meat i.e. DiMeIQ (3.69 ng/g) at well done doneness. The sensory evaluation, using a 7 point hedonic test design for colour and texture in deep fried meat samples were resulted in a preferred color of golden brown and slightly tough texture. The use of local spices in marinating of deep fried lamb meat samples will certainly inhibit/reduce the level of these toxic and harmful HCAs.