Nano-transfersomes as a novel carrier for transdermal delivery

Development and evaluation of novel miltefosine-polyphenol co-loaded second generation nano-transfersomes for the topical treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis

Objective: To test the hypothesis that miltefosine (MTF)-polyphenol co-loaded second-generation nano-transfersomes (SGNTs) can be an effective approach for the topical treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL).Methods: The co-loaded SGNTs with various MTF-polyphenol combinations were developed, evaluated and compared for the entrapment efficiency, vesicle size, deformability index, ex-vivo permeation, cytotoxicity, and anti-leishmanial potential, using both in-vitro and in-vivo models.Results: The co-loaded SGNTs were spherical in shape, with an average size of 119 ± 1.5 nm and a high entrapment efficiency of 73.7 ± 3.7%. The ex-vivo study displayed a 3.2-fold higher permeation of MTF when entrapped in co-loaded SGNTs, whereas cytotoxicity potential of co-loaded SGNTs was 43.2% higher than the MTF solution. A synergistic interaction was observed between MTF and apigenin (APG) among all polyphenols and an 8.0-fold lower IC₅₀ was found against amastigotes of DsRed Leishmania mexicana, compared with the plain MTF solution. Moreover, the in-vivo studies displayed a 9.5-fold reduced parasitic burden in the L. mexicana infected BALB/c mice treated with MTF-APG co-loaded SGNTs gel.Conclusions: The potential of MTF-APG co-loaded SGNTs topical formulation is established for the first time as an effective drug delivery strategy against CL.

Lecithin soybean phospholipid nano-transfersomes as potential carriers for transdermal delivery of the human growth hormone

Pharmaceutical molecules such as peptides and proteins are usually injected into the body. Numerous efforts have been made to find new noninvasive ways to administer these peptides. In this study, highly flexible vesicles (transfersomes [TFs]) were designed as a new modern transdermal drug delivery system for systemic drug administration through the skin, which had also been evaluated in vitro. In this study, two growth hormone-loaded TF formulations were prepared, using soybean lecithin and two different surfactants; F1 _sodium deoxycholate and F 2 _sodium lauryl sulfate. Thereafter, the amount of skin penetration by the two formulas was assessed using the Franz diffusion cell system. TF formulations were evaluated for size, zeta potential and in vitro skin penetration across the rat skin. Results indicated that vesicle formulations were stable for 4 weeks and their mean sizes were 241.33 ± 17 and 171 ± 12.12 nm in the F 1 and F 2 formulation, respectively. After application to rat skin, transport of the human growth hormone (hGH) released from the TF formulations was found to be higher than that of the hGH alone. Maximum amounts of transdermal hormone delivery were estimated to be 489.54 ± 8.301  and 248.46 ± 4.019 ng·cm-2 , for F 1 and F 2 , respectively. The results demonstrate the capability of the TF-containing growth hormone in transdermal delivery and superiority of the F 1 to F 2 TFs.

Nanosized Transferosome-Based Intranasal In Situ Gel for Brain Targeting of Resveratrol: Formulation, Optimization, In Vitro Evaluation, and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Study

Resveratrol (RES) is a potent antioxidant used for the management of several central nervous system diseases. RES bioavailability is less than 1 owing to its low solubility and extensive intestinal and hepatic metabolism. The aim of the study was to enhance RES bioavailability through developing intranasal transferosomal mucoadhesive gel. Reverse evaporation-vortexing sonication method was employed to prepare RES-loaded transferosomes. Transferosomes were developed via 3⁴ definitive screening design, using soya lecithin, permeation enhancers, and surfactants. The optimized formula displayed spherical shape with vesicle size of 83.79 ± 2.54 nm and entrapment efficiency (EE%) of 72.58 ± 4.51%. Mucoadhesive gels were prepared and evaluated, then optimized RES transferosomes were incorporated into the selected gel and characterized using FTIR spectroscopy, in vitro release, and ex vivo permeation study. Histopathological examination of nasal mucosa and in vivo pharmacokinetic study were conducted. In vitro drug release from transferosomal gel was 65.87 ± 2.12% and ex vivo permeation was 75.95 ± 3.19%. Histopathological study confirmed the safety of the optimized formula. The C_max of RES in the optimized RES trans-gel was 2.15 times higher than the oral RES suspension and AUC_(0-∞) increased by 22.5 times. The optimized RES trans-gel developed intranasal safety and bioavailability enhancement through passing hepatic and intestinal metabolism.

Preparation and Evaluation of Novel Transfersomes Combined with the Natural Antioxidant Resveratrol

Resveratrol (tran-3,5,4′-trihydroxystibene, RSV) is a kind of polyphenol which has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-allergy, and anti-cancer properties, as well as being a scavenger of free radicals and preventing cardiovascular diseases. However, it is quite unstable in light, heat, and other conditions, and decays easily due to environmental factors. For these reasons, this study used a new type of carrier, transfersome, to encapsulate RSV. Transfersome consists of phosphatidyl choline (PC) from a liposomal system and non-ionic edge activators (EA). EA are an important ingredient in the formulation of transfersome; they can enhance the flexibility of the lipid bimolecular membrane of transfersome. Due to its ultradeformability, it also allows drugs to penetrate the skin, even through the stratum corneum. We hope that this new encapsulation technique will improve the stability and enhance the permeability of RSV. Concluding all the tested parameters, the best production condition was 5% PC/EA (3:1) and 5% ethanol in distilled water, with an ultrasonic bath and stirring at 500 rpm, followed by high pressure homogenization. The optimal particle size was 40.13 ± 0.51 nm and the entrapment efficiency (EE) was 59.93 ± 0.99%. The results of antioxidant activity analysis showed that transfersomes were comparable to the RSV group (unencapsulated). During in vitro transdermal delivery analysis, after 6 h, D1-20(W) increased 27.59% by accumulation. Cell viability assay showed that the cytotoxicity of D3-80(W) was reduced by 34.45% compared with the same concentration of RSV. Therefore, we successfully prepared RSV transfersomes and also improved the stability, solubility, and safety of RSV.

An Evaluation of Curcumin-Encapsulated Chitosan Nanoparticles for Transdermal Delivery

Curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were synthesised and evaluated in vitro for enhanced transdermal delivery. Zetasizer® characterisation of three different formulations of curcumin nanoparticles (Cu-NPs) showed the size ranged from 167.3 ± 3.8 nm to 251.5 ± 5.8 nm, the polydispersity index (PDI) values were between 0.26 and 0.46 and the zeta potential values were positive (+ 18.1 to + 20.2 mV). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images supported this size data and confirmed the spherical shape of the nanoparticles. All the formulations showed excellent entrapment efficiency above 80%. FTIR results demonstrate the interaction between chitosan and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) and confirm the presence of curcumin in the nanoparticle. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies of Cu-NPs indicate the presence of curcumin in a disordered crystalline or amorphous state, suggesting the interaction between the drug and the polymer. Drug release studies showed an improved drug release at pH 5.0 than in pH 7.4 and followed a zero order kinetics. The in vitro permeation studies through Strat-M® membrane demonstrated an enhanced permeation of Cu-NPs compared to aqueous curcumin solution (p ˂ 0.05) having a flux of 0.54 ± 0.03 μg cm^-2 h^-1 and 0.44 ± 0.03 μg cm^-2 h^-1 corresponding to formulations 5:1 and 3:1, respectively. The cytotoxicity assay on human keratinocyte (HaCat) cells showed enhanced percentage cell viability of Cu-NPs compared to curcumin solution. Cu-NPs developed in this study exhibit superior drug release and enhanced transdermal permeation of curcumin and superior percentage cell viability. Further ex vivo and in vivo evaluations will be conducted to support these findings.

Sodium stibogluconate loaded nano-deformable liposomes for topical treatment of leishmaniasis: macrophage as a target cell

Topical drug delivery against cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) signifies an effective alternate for improving the availability and reducing the toxicity associated with the parenteral administration of conventional sodium stibogluconate (SSG) injection. The basic aim of the study was to develop nano-deformable liposomes (NDLs) for the dermal delivery of SSG against CL. NDLs were formulated by a modified thin film hydration method and optimized via Box–Behnken statistical design. The physicochemical properties of SSG-NDLs were established in terms of vesicle size (195.1 nm), polydispersity index (0.158), zeta potential (−32.8 mV), and entrapment efficiency (35.26%). Moreover, deformability index, in vitro release, and macrophage uptake studies were also accomplished. SSG-NDLs were entrapped within Carbopol gel network for the ease of skin application. The ex vivo skin permeation study revealed that SSG-NDLs gel provided 10-fold higher skin retention towards the deeper skin layers, attained without use of classical permeation enhancers. Moreover, in vivo skin irritation and histopathological studies verified safety of the topically applied formulation. Interestingly, the cytotoxic potential of SSG-NDLs (1.3 mg/ml) was higher than plain SSG (1.65 mg/ml). The anti-leishmanial activity on intramacrophage amastigote model of Leishmania tropica showed that IC₅₀ value of the SSG-NDLs was ∼ fourfold lower than the plain drug solution with marked increase in the selectivity index. The in vivo results displayed higher anti-leishmanial activity by efficiently healing lesion and successfully reducing parasite burden. Concisely, the outcomes indicated that the targeted delivery of SSG could be accomplished by using topically applied NDLs for the effective treatment of CL.

Improvement of dermal delivery of tetracycline using vesicular nanostructures

The objective of this investigation was to study the potential use of nanoliposomes and nanotransfersomes in dermal delivery of tetracycline hydrochloride (TC) for acne treatment. Vesicular nanostructures were prepared by thin film hydration method and evaluated for their size, zeta potential, morphology, and entrapment efficiency. Minimal inhibitory concentration values of TC-loaded vesicles were evaluated and compared with TC aqueous solution against Staphylococcus epidermis. In vitro drug release and ex vivo drug permeation through the excised rat skin were performed to assess drug delivery efficiency. Particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of prepared nanoliposomes and nanotransfersomes were found to be 75 and 78 nm, 17 and 7 mV, and 45 and 55%, respectively. Antimicrobial analysis indicated that there was no difference between vesicular formulations and aqueous solution of TC. In vitro drug release study indicated that nanoliposomes could release TC 2.6 folds more than nanotransfersomes, and skin permeation study showed that the permeability of TC-loaded nanotransfersomes was 1.6 times higher than nanoliposomes which was also confirmed by fluorescence microscope imaging. These findings concluded that nanoliposomal and especially nanotransfersomal formulations could be proposed as the potential approach for better therapeutic performance of TC against acne.

Ursolic acid rich Ocimum sanctum L leaf extract loaded nanostructured lipid carriers ameliorate adjuvant induced arthritis in rats by inhibition of COX-1, COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1: Pharmacological and docking studies

BACKGROUND

Ursolic acid (UA) is a promising molecule with anti-inflammatory, analgesic and potential anti-arthritic activity.

METHODS

This study was undertaken to make formulation and evaluation of Ocimum sanctum L. leaf extract (OLE) loaded nano-structured lipid carriers (OLE-NLCs) for improved transdermal delivery of UA. Different surfactants, solid lipids and liquid lipids were used for the preparation of NLCs. The NLCs were developed using emulsion solvent diffusion and evaporation method. Different physicochemical properties, entrapment efficacy, in vitro release evaluation, and ex vivo permeation studies of the prepared NLCs were carried out. The in vivo anti-arthritic activity of OLE-loaded NLC gel and control gel formulation (OLE free NLC gel) against Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) induced arthritis in wister albino rats was also carried out.

RESULTS

OLE-NLCs were composed of spherical particles having a mean particle size of ~120 nm, polydispersity index of ~0.162 and zeta potential of ~ -27 mV. The high entrapment efficiency (EE) of UA ~89.56% was attained. The in vitro release study demonstrated a prolonged release of UA from the NLCs up to 12 h. The developed formulation was found to be significantly better with respect to the drug permeation amount with an enhancement ratio of 2.69 as compared with marketed formulation. The in vivo biological activity investigations, studies showed that the newly prepared NLCs formulation of OLE showed excellent anti-arthritic activity and the results were found at par with standard marketed diclofenac gel for its analgesic and anti-arthritic activities. These results were also supported by radiological analysis and molecular docking studies.

CONCLUSION

The overall results proved that the prepared OLE-NLCs were very effective for the treatment of arthritis and the results were found at par with standard marketed the standard formulation of diclofenac gel.

Preparation of mixed monoterpenes edge activated PEGylated transfersomes to improve the in vivo transdermal delivery efficiency of sinomenine hydrochloride

Surfactants generally have been used as edge activators of transfersomes. However, surfactants edge activated transfersomes frequently lead to cutaneous irritation, skin lipid loss and other side effects after dermal administration. In this study, mixed monoterpenes edge activated PEGylated transfersomes (MMPTs) were prepared by ethanol injection process with sinomenine hydrochloride as a model drug. The formulation of MMPTs was optimized by an orthogonal design. We investigated skin permeation/deposition characteristics and pharmacokinetics of sinomenine hydrochloride loaded in MMPTs by comparing with liposomes using in vitro skin tests and in vivo cutaneous microdialysis. In in vitro study, the accumulative skin permeated quantity (ASPQ) and skin permeation rate (SPR) of simonenine (SIN) in the optimized MMPTs were prominently higher than that in the other MMPTs. The optimized MMPTs had a SIN ASPQ of over three times of SIN ASPQ in the liposomes and much larger SPR of SIN compared with the latter. In contrast, the drug deposition of the optimized MMPTs in the stratum corneum was much less than that of the conventional liposomes. It was noteworthy that the drug deposition curve in the whole skin (stratum corneum-stripped skin, either) for the optimized MMPTs increased initially and then decreased with an obvious peak deposition amount at 12h, while, a relatively steady curve was observed for the liposomes. In in vivo cutaneous pharmacokinetic study, the steady state concentration (C_ss) and the area under the curve (AUC_0→t) of SIN from the optimized MMPTs was 8.7 and 8.2 folds higher than those from the liposomes, respectively. Moreover, the MRT_0-inf of SIN from optimal MMPTs got shorter than that from the liposomes. It can be concluded that the optimized MMPTs obviously enhance the percutaneous absorption of sinomenine.

Current application of phytocompound-based nanocosmeceuticals for beauty and skin therapy

Phytocompounds have been used in cosmeceuticals for decades and have shown potential for beauty applications, including sunscreen, moisturizing and antiaging, and skin-based therapy. The major concerns in the usage of phyto-based cosmeceuticals are lower penetration and high compound instability of various cosmetic products for sustained and enhanced compound delivery to the beauty-based skin therapy. To overcome these disadvantages, nanosized delivery technologies are currently in use for sustained and enhanced delivery of phyto-derived bioactive compounds in cosmeceutical sectors and products. Nanosizing of phytocompounds enhances the aseptic feel in various cosmeceutical products with sustained delivery and enhanced skin protecting activities. Solid lipid nanoparticles, transfersomes, ethosomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes are some of the emerging nanotechnologies currently in use for their enhanced delivery of phytocompounds in skin care. Aloe vera, curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, vitamins C and E, genistein, and green tea catechins were successfully nanosized using various delivery technologies and incorporated in various gels, lotions, and creams for skin, lip, and hair care for their sustained effects. However, certain delivery agents such as carbon nanotubes need to be studied for their roles in toxicity. This review broadly focuses on the usage of phytocompounds in various cosmeceutical products, nanodelivery technologies used in the delivery of phytocompounds to various cosmeceuticals, and various nanosized phytocompounds used in the development of novel nanocosmeceuticals to enhance skin-based therapy.

Development and evaluation of curcumin-loaded elastic vesicles as an effective topical anti-inflammatory formulation

Curcumin has diverse biological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. However, its clinical use for topical application is limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and thus, minimal cutaneous bioavailability. Elastic vesicles (EVs) of curcumin were prepared to improve its cutaneous bioavailability and to use it for topical anti-inflammatory effect. Ex vivo skin permeation and retention studies were performed to check if incorporation of curcumin into EVs could improve its permeation into and retention in the skin. Evaluation of acute and chronic anti-inflammatory effect was done using xylene-induced acute ear edema in mice and cotton pellet-induced chronic inflammation in rats, respectively. A significant improvement in flux (nine times) across murine skin was observed when aqueous dispersion of curcumin (flux - 0.46 ± 0.02 μg/h/cm(2)) was compared with curcumin-loaded EVs (flux - 4.14 ± 0.04 μg/h/cm(2)). Incorporation of these curcumin-loaded EVs into a hydrophilic ointment base resulted in higher skin retention (51.66%) in contrast to free curcumin ointment (1.64%) and a marketed formulation (VICCO® turmeric skin cream). The developed ointment showed an effect similar (p < 0.05) to the marketed diclofenac sodium ointment (Omni-gel®) in suppression of acute inflammation in mouse; a significant inhibition (28.8% versus 3.91% for free curcumin) of cotton pellet-induced chronic inflammation was also observed. Thus, curcumin-loaded EVs incorporated in hydrophilic ointment is a promising topical anti-inflammatory formulation.

Transdermal delivery of 10,11-methylenedioxycamptothecin by hyaluronic acid based nanoemulsion for inhibition of keloid fibroblast

This study designs an alternative transdermal delivery system for 10,11-methylenedioxycamptothecin(MD-CPT) to inhibit keloid. Hyaluronic acid nanoemulsions (HANs) with nano size, negative charge and good stability were prepared as transdermal carriers. The MD-CPT loaded HANs performed desirable skin permeable capacity across human keloid skin and the drug was transferred directly to keloid lesion area. MD-CPT was delivered percutaneously higher than the control group. FITC-HANs could be successfully internalized by keloid fibroblast (KF) and deliver MD-CPT toward nucleus, inhibited the proliferation of KF, while there was no serious toxicity to normal skin fibroblasts. The growth-inhibitory effect was further clarified upon cell cycle regulation, which arrested cells at G1/S and prevented them entry into mitosis. KF gene expression demonstrated plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) was significantly down-regulated and Smad7 up-regulated, which was beneficial to inhibit keloid. The study demonstrated that as transdermal delivery of MD-CPT by HANs has potential for inhibition of keloid fibroblast.

A novel nano-carrier transdermal gel against inflammation

The objective was to develop a stable, reproducible and patient non-infringing novel transdermal drug delivery system "nano-carrier transdermal gel" (NCTG) in combination of partial dose replacement of diclofenac diethylamine (DDEA) by curcumin (CRM). The drug content of gel was 99.30 and 97.57% for DDEA and CRM. Plasma samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography with triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS). Data were integrated with Analyst™ and analyzed by WinNonlin; stability parameters were analyzed using Tukey-Kramer multiple comparison test. Its average skin irritation scored 0.49 concluded to be non-irritant, safe for human use and in vivo studies revealed significantly greater extent of absorption and highly significant inhibition (%) of carrageenan induced paw edema. The results also demonstrated that encapsulation of drugs in nano-carrier increases its biological activity due to superior skin penetration potential. Hence, a novel once day transdermal gel of nano-carrier (nano-transfersomes; deformable vesicular) is achieved, to increase systemic availability, subsequent reduction in dose and toxicity of DDEA was developed for the treatment of inflammation.