Identification, cloning and sequencing of two major venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri

Cardiotoxic effects of venom fractions from the Australian box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri on human myocardiocytes

An investigation into the cardiotoxic effects in human cardiomyocytes of different fractions (as produced from an FPLC) of the venom from Chironex fleckeri showed that whole venom caused cardiac cell death in minutes, measured as cell detachment using xCELLigence technology. However, only one fraction of the venom was responsible for this effect. When all extracted venoms were recombined a similar result was seen for the toxic fraction, however these effects were slower than unfractionated venom alone even though the concentrations were similar. The difference in the results between fractioned and unfractionated venom may have been caused by compounds remaining in the FPLC column, which may interact with the toxic fraction to cause rapid cell detachment or death.

A pharmacological investigation of the venom extract of the Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, in cardiac and vascular tissues

The pharmacology of Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, unpurified (crude) nematocyst venom extract (CVE) was investigated in rat isolated cardiac and vascular tissues and in anaesthetised rats. In small mesenteric arteries CVE (0.01-30 μg/ml) caused contractions (EC(50) 1.15±0.19 μg/ml) that were unaffected by prazosin (0.1 μM), bosentan (10 μM), CGRP(8-37) (1 μM) or tetrodotoxin (1 μM). Box jellyfish antivenom (5-92.6 units/ml) caused rightward shifts of the CVE concentration-response curve with no change in the maximum. In the presence of l-NAME (100 μM) the sensitivity and maximum response to CVE were increased, whilst MgSO(4) (6 mM) decreased both parameters. CVE (1-10 μg/ml) caused inhibition of the contractile response to electrical sympathetic nerve stimulation. Left atrial responses to CVE (0.001-30 μg/ml) were bi-phasic, composed of an initial positive inotropy followed by a marked negative inotropy and atrial standstill. CVE (0.3 μg/ml) elicited a marked decrease in right atrial rate followed by atrial standstill at 3 μg/ml. These responses were unaffected by 1 μM of propranolol, atropine or CGRP(8-37). Antivenom (54 and 73 units/ml) caused rightward shifts of the CVE concentration-response curve and prevented atrial standstill in left and right atria. The effects of CVE do not appear to involve autonomic nerves, post-synaptic α(1)- or β(1)-adrenoceptors, or muscarinic, endothelin or CGRP receptors, but may occur through direct effects on the cardiac and vascular muscle. Box jellyfish antivenom was effective in attenuating CVE-induced responses in isolated cardiac and vascular tissues.

Comparison of haemolytic activity of tentacle-only extract from jellyfish Cyanea capillata in diluted whole blood and erythrocyte suspension: diluted whole blood is a valid test system for haemolysis study

In this paper, we utilized two different test systems to compare the haemolysis of tentacle-only extract (TOE) devoid of nematocysts from jellyfish Cyanea capillata, the 1% whole blood and 0.45% erythrocyte suspension approximately with the same erythrocyte concentration from the blood samples of sheep, rabbit, mouse, rat and human, respectively. Without exception, the haemolytic activity of TOE was dose-dependent in both test systems from all the five kinds of blood samples, while it was generally stronger in erythrocyte suspension than that in diluted whole blood at the relatively high concentration of TOE. When various aliquots of plasma were added into the erythrocyte suspension test system, the haemolytic activity of TOE was declined with the plasma quantity increasing, and dropped to about 20% at the presence of two aliquots of plasma. If serum albumin of 0.5 mg/ml, approximately the same albumin content in 1% whole blood, was added into the erythrocyte suspension test system instead, the haemolysis of TOE was similarly inhibited. The effects of GSH, ascorbic acid and protease inhibitor on the haemolytic activity of TOE were detected in the erythrocyte suspension and diluted whole blood simultaneously, and the test results were coincident between the two systems. These results suggested that the inconsistency of TOE haemolysis between the erythrocyte suspension and diluted whole blood is a universal occurrence in the mammals, and blood plasma plays a dose-dependent protective role against haemolysis which may be due to serum albumin. Diluted whole blood is a valid and convenient test system for haemolysis study in vitro.

A novel proteinaceous cytotoxin from the northern Scyphozoa Cyanea capillata (L.) with structural homology to cubozoan haemolysins

It is well known that jellyfish are producers of complex mixtures of proteinaceous toxins for prey capture and defence. Nevertheless, studies on boreal scyphozoans concerning venom composition and toxic effects are rare. Here the isolation of a novel cytotoxic protein from the fishing tentacle venom of Cyanea capillata (L. 1758) using bioactivity-guided, multidimensional liquid chromatography is described. The crude venom was purified utilising preparative size-exclusion, ion-exchange, and reversed-phase chromatography. The cytotoxicity of resulting chromatographic fractions has been proven by a dye-uptake assay with the human hepatocyte cell line HepG2. The final purification step yielded, among other fractions, a fraction containing a single protein (named CcTX-1) with a molecular weight of its main isoform of 31.17 kDa The purification process leads to an increased cytotoxic activity per protein equivalents and the finally isolated CcTX-1 caused a nearly total loss of cell viability at a protein concentration of 1.3 μg mL⁻¹ corresponding to 0.4 μg/10⁵ cells. De novo sequencing of CcTX-1 was conducted after enzymatic digestion and subsequent matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF/ToF MS/MS). The obtained sequence data provide an approximate 85% description of the amino acid sequence. This sequence information partially matched that of two known haemolytic proteins of two cubozoan species: CaTX-1 from Carybdea alata Reynaud, 1830 and CrTX-1 from Carybdea rastonii Haacke, 1886.

Cryptochromes--a potential magnetoreceptor: what do we know and what do we want to know?

Cryptochromes have been suggested to be the primary magnetoreceptor molecules underlying light-dependent magnetic compass detection in migratory birds. Here we review and evaluate (i) what is known about these candidate magnetoreceptor molecules, (ii) what characteristics cryptochrome molecules must fulfil to possibly underlie light-dependent, radical pair based magnetoreception, (iii) what evidence supports the involvement of cryptochromes in magnetoreception, and (iv) what needs to be addressed in future research. The review focuses primarily on our knowledge of cryptochromes in the context of magnetoreception.

High-molecular weight protein toxins of marine invertebrates and their elaborate modes of action

High-molecular weight protein toxins significantly contribute to envenomations by certain marine invertebrates, e.g., jellyfish and fire corals. Toxic proteins frequently evolved from enzymes meant to be employed primarily for digestive purposes. The cellular intermediates produced by such enzymatic activity, e.g., reactive oxygen species or lysophospholipids, rapidly and effectively mediate cell death by disrupting cellular integrity. Membrane integrity may also be disrupted by pore-forming toxins that do not exert inherent enzymatic activity. When targeted to specific pharmacologically relevant sites in tissues or cells of the natural enemy or prey, toxic enzymes or pore-forming toxins even may provoke fast and severe systemic reactions. Since toxin-encoding genes constitute "hot spots" of molecular evolution, continuous variation and acquirement of new pharmacological properties are guaranteed. This also makes individual properties and specificities of complex proteinaceous venoms highly diverse and inconstant. In the present chapter we portray high-molecular weight constituents of venoms present in box jellyfish, sea anemones, sea hares, fire corals and the crown-of-thorns starfish. The focus lies on the latest achievements in the attempt to elucidate their molecular modes of action.

In vivo effects of cnidarian toxins and venoms

Cnidarians (Coelenterates), a very old and diverse animal phylum, possess a wide variety of biologically active substances that can be considered as toxins. Anthozoan toxins can be classified into two chemically very different groups, namely polypeptide toxins isolated from sea anemones and diterpenes isolated from octocorals. Cubozoan and scyphozoan protein toxins have been the most elusive cnidarian toxins to investigate - despite a tremendous effort in the past few decades, very few of these large, relatively unstable protein toxins were isolated, but recently this has been achieved for cubozoan venoms. Hydrozoans mainly contain large proteins with physiological mechanisms of action similar to the sea anemone and jellyfish pore-forming toxins. This article will focus on the in vivo physiological effects of cnidarian toxins and venoms; their actions at the cellular level will only be considered to understand their actions at the organ and whole animal levels. An understanding of mechanisms underlying the in vivo toxic effects will facilitate the development of more effective treatments of cnidarian envenomations.

A cell-based assay for screening of antidotes to, and antivenom against Chironex fleckeri (box jellyfish) venom

INTRODUCTION

Chironex fleckeri is a large box jellyfish that has been labelled the 'most venomous animal' in the world. We have recently shown that the primary effect of C. fleckeri venom in vivo is cardiovascular collapse. This study utilised a cell-based assay to examine the effects of C. fleckeri venom on the proliferation of a rat aortic smooth muscle cell line. In addition, the ability of CSL box jellyfish antivenom and/or various potential treatment strategies to neutralise the effects of the venom was examined.

METHODS

A7r5 cells were cultured in media containing venom. The effect of CSL box jellyfish antivenom (5 U/mL), CSL polyvalent snake antivenom (5 U/mL), lanthanum (5 microM), MgSO(4) (50 mM), verapamil (5 microM) or felodipine (5 microM) was examined. Cell viability was determined using a Cell titer 96 AQueous One Solution cell proliferation assay.

RESULTS

Incubation of A7r5 cells with serially diluted venom (2-0.004 microg/mL) caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation with an IC(50) value of 0.056 microg/mL. This response was not affected by the absence of calcium or the presence of lanthanum in the media. Box jellyfish antivenom (5 U/mL) prevented the inhibition of cell proliferation caused by the venom. Verapamil (5 microM) had no significant effect on the inhibition. In contrast, felodipine (5 microM) or MgSO(4) (50 mM) potentiated the effects of the venom and partially negated the protective effect of the antivenom.

DISCUSSION

This study displayed the ability to utilise a cell-based assay to determine the effects of C. fleckeri venom on vascular cell viability. It showed that CSL box jellyfish can neutralise the effects of the venom but only if added prior to the venom. In addition, potential adjunct therapies verapamil, felodipine and MgSO(4) were found to be ineffective, with felodipine and MgSO(4) potentiating the detrimental effects of the venom.

Marine toxins: an overview

Oceans provide enormous and diverse space for marine life. Invertebrates are conspicuous inhabitants in certain zones such as the intertidal; many are soft-bodied, relatively immobile and lack obvious physical defenses. These animals frequently have evolved chemical defenses against predators and overgrowth by fouling organisms. Marine animals may accumulate and use a variety of toxins from prey organisms and from symbiotic microorganisms for their own purposes. Thus, toxic animals are particularly abundant in the oceans. The toxins vary from small molecules to high molecular weight proteins and display unique chemical and biological features of scientific interest. Many of these substances can serve as useful research tools or molecular models for the design of new drugs and pesticides. This chapter provides an initial survey of these toxins and their salient properties.

Partial purification of cytolytic venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri

Venom proteins from the nematocysts of Chironex fleckeri were fractionated by size-exclusion and cation-exchange chromatography. Using sheep erythrocyte haemolysis as an indicator of cytolytic activity, two major cytolysins, with native molecular masses of approximately 370 and 145kDa, and one minor cytolysin ( approximately 70kDa) were isolated. SDS-PAGE and western blot protein profiles revealed that the 370kDa haemolysin is composed of CfTX-1 and CfTX-2 subunits ( approximately 43 and 45kDa, respectively); the most abundant proteins found in C. fleckeri nematocyst extracts. The 145kDa haemolysin predominately contains two other major proteins ( approximately 39 and 41kDa), which are not antigenic towards commercially available box jellyfish antivenom or rabbit polyclonal antibodies raised against whole C. fleckeri nematocyst extracts or CfTX-1 and -2. The kinetics of CfTX-1 and -2 haemolytic activities are temperature dependent and characterised by a pre-lytic lag phase ( approximately 6-7min) prior to initiation of haemolysis. Significant amino acid sequence homology between the CfTX proteins and other box jellyfish toxins suggest that CfTX-1 and -2 may also be lethal and dermonecrotic. Therefore, further in vivo and in vitro studies are required to investigate the potential roles of CfTX-1 and -2 in the lethal effects of C. fleckeri venom.