Mechanisms related to reduction of radical in mouse lung using an L-band ESR spectrometer

Oral administration is as effective as intraperitoneal administration of amifostine in decreasing nitroxide EPR signal decay in vivo

A rapid method to determine the systemic incorporation of amifostine has been sought in order to determine the effectiveness of different administration routes without the delay inherent in awaiting therapeutic results. Consistent changes in animal measurements of nitroxide signal decay were monitored using in vivo EPR at frequencies low enough to ensure uniform sensitivity to organs deep in 20-g C3H mice. Conditions included both co-administration of the amifostine with the carbamoyl-proxyl spin probe (CP) via i.p. injection (n=6) and oral administration (n=8) of the amifostine. These decreased the first order rate of decay of the CP EPR signal after a dose of 13.5 Gy radiation, by 23% and 18%, respectively. These changes were significantly different from the rate of decay of the CP EPR signal without amifostine, but were statistically indistinguishable from each other. These data demonstrate: (1) condition-dependent exponential decay of CP EPR signal allowing its use to determine systemic availability of a drug, and (2) that oral administration and i.p. injection of amifostine are both effective in affecting the CP EPR signal decay rate in a mouse model. This is a strong indicator of similar bioavailability in mice from both routes of administration.

Kinetic study on ESR signal decay of nitroxyl radicals, potent redox probes for in vivo ESR spectroscopy, caused by reactive oxygen species

The effect of the chemical structure of nitroxyl spin probes on the rate at which ESR signals are lost in the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was examined. When the spin probes were reacted with either hydroxyl radical (.OH) or superoxide anion radical (O(2)(.-)) in the presence of cysteine or NADH, the probes lost ESR signal depending on both their ring structure and substituents. Pyrrolidine nitroxyl probes were relatively resistant to the signal decay caused by O(2)(.-) with cysteine/NADH. Signal decay rates for these reactions correlated with reported redox potentials of the nitroxyl/oxoammonium couple of spin probes, suggesting that the signal decay mechanism in both cases involves the oxidation of a nitroxyl group. The apparent rate constants of the reactions between the spin probe and .OH and between the spin probe and O(2)(.-) in the presence of cysteine were estimated using mannitol and superoxide dismutase (SOD), respectively, as competitive standards. The rate constants for spin probes and .OH were in the order of 10(9) M(-1) s(-1), much higher than those for the probes and O(2)(.-) in the presence of cysteine (10(3)-10(4) M(-1) s(-1)). These basic data are useful for the measurement of .OH and O(2)(.-) in living animals by in vivo ESR spectroscopy.

[Free radicals and oxidative stress: targeted ESR measurement of free radicals]

The detection of free radicals generated within the body may contribute to clarifying the pathophysiological role of free radicals in disease processes. As an appropriate procedure to examine the generation of free radicals in a biological system, electron spin resonance (ESR) has emerged as a powerful tool for detection and identification. A method for determination of oxygen radical scavenging activity using ESR and the spin trapping technique was developed. Oxygen radicals were trapped by 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) or alpha-phenyl-N-t-butylnitrone (PBN), and the DMPO or PBN spin adduct signal was measured quantitatively by an ESR spectrometer. The spin trapping method using ESR has also been reported for not only in vitro and ex vivo measurements but also in vivo measurements. In in vivo ESR, nitroxyl radical is being used as a spin trap well. ESR signal intensities of nitroxyl radical are measured after administration to animals and the signal decay rates of nitroxyl radical have reported to be influenced by various types of oxidative stress. With this method, it is possible to specify the type of radical or the location at which the free radicals are produced. The spin trapping method by in vivo ESR is an effective procedure for giving non-invasive measurements in animals. ESR imaging in the organs of live animals can also be obtained after injection of nitroxyl radicals as an imaging agent using ESR-computed tomography. In vivo ESR imaging has been established as a powerful technique for determining the spatial distribution of free radicals in living organs and tissues.

Interaction of albumin with the endothelial cell surface

Endothelial cells (EC) are covered with cell-borne proteoglycans and glycoproteins. Blood plasma proteins (e.g., albumin) adsorb to this glycocalyx forming a complex endothelial surface layer (ESL). We determined the molecular mobility of albumin by electron spin resonance (ESR) in the presence and absence of ECs to analyze interactions with the ESL. Albumin was spin labeled with 5- or 12-4,4-dimethyloxazolidine-N-oxyl (DOXYL)-stearic acid yielding information on the mobility of the molecular surface (5-DOXYL) or the entire protein (12-DOXYL). EC cultures grown on glass coverslips were immersed in labeled albumin and placed in the temperature-regulated cavity of an ESR spectrometer. Alternatively, ECs were labeled and then exposed to native albumin. At 37 degrees C, rotational correlation times determined by modified saturation transfer ESR (ST-ESR) were 26 and 48 ns for 5-DOXYL- and 12-DOXYL-labeled albumin, respectively. Presence of ECs increased rotational correlation time values for 5-DOXYL-stearic acid to 37 ns but not for 12-DOXYL-stearic acid. Albumin was able to completely take up the label from labeled EC within 2 min. The present study shows that modified ST-ESR can be used to determine the mobility of biological macromolecules interacting with cellular surfaces. Reduction in albumin surface mobility in the presence of EC at unchanged mobility of protein proper and fast removal of labeled fatty acids from EC membranes indicate rapid transient interactions between albumin surface and ESL but no rigid incorporation of albumin into a macromolecular network that would interfere with its transport function for poorly water-soluble substances.

Feasibility and assessment of non-invasive in vivo redox status using electron paramagnetic resonance imaging

PURPOSE

To test the feasibility of electron paramagnetic resonance imaging (EPRI) to provide non-invasive images of tissue redox status using redox-sensitive paramagnetic contrast agents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nitroxide free radicals were used as paramagnetic agents and a custom-built 300 MHz EPR spectrometer/imager was used for all studies. A phantom was constructed consisting of four tubes containing equal concentrations of a nitroxide. Varying concentrations of hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase were added to each tube and reduction of the nitroxide was monitored by EPR as a function of time. Tumor-bearing mice were intravenously infused with a nitroxide and the corresponding reduction rate was monitored on a pixel-by-pixel basis using 2D EPR of the tumor-bearing leg and normal leg serving as control. For animal studies, nitroxides were injected intravenously (1.25 mmol/kg) and EPR projections were collected every 3 min after injection using a magnetic field gradient of 2.5 G/cm. The reduction rates of signal intensity on a pixel-by-pixel basis were calculated and plotted as a redox map. Redox maps were also collected from the mice treated with diethylmaleate (DEM), which depletes tissue thiols and alters the global redox status.

RESULTS

Redox maps obtained from the phantoms were in agreement with the intensity change in each of the tubes where the signals were decreasing as a function of the enzymatic activity, validating the ability of EPRI to accurately access changes in nitroxide reduction. Redox imaging capability of EPR was next evaluated in vivo. EPR images of the nitroxide distribution and reduction rates in tumor-bearing leg of mice exhibited more heterogeneity than in the normal tissue. Reduction rates were found to be significantly decreased in tumors of mice treated with DEM, consistent with the depletion of thiols and the consequent alteration of the redox status.

CONCLUSION

Using redox-sensitive paramagnetic contrast agents, EPRI can non-invasively discriminate redox status differences between normal tissue and tumors.

Antioxidative properties of pig vesical mucosa: a comparison with gastric and intestinal mucosa

The antioxidative properties of pig urinary bladder mucosa were compared with those of gastric and intestinal mucosa using nitroxide radicals. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) method was used to monitor the metabolic processes of nitroxides in mucosae. The reduction of nitroxides was measured on intact luminal surfaces of gastric, intestinal, and urinary bladder mucosa, as well as in homogenates of mucosa surface layer. Furthermore, N-ethylmaleimide and ascorbate oxidase have been used to characterize the reducing agents in urinary bladder mucosa homogenates. The nitroxide concentration decrease on intact mucosa of the urinary bladder was significantly different from those of the gastric and the intestinal mucosa. The concentration decrease was the largest for intestinal mucosa and the smallest for bladder mucosa. On the other hand, homogenates exhibit the largest nitroxide reduction rates for the bladder mucosa and the smallest for the gastric mucosa. In the bladder surface layer homogenates ascorbate and thiol-containing reducing agents were found and their coupled action in the nitroxide reduction process was established. The mucosa of urinary bladder is protected against nitroxide free radicals by a relatively low permeability and very active endogenous reducing agents. The gastric and intestinal mucosa are more permeable and/or have greater antioxidant activity on their surface. The reduction of nitroxides in the urinary bladder mucosa occurs via the ascorbate-thiol coupled reducing system.

Noninvasive detection of hydroxyl radical generation in lung by diesel exhaust particles

Diesel exhaust particles (DEP) induce pulmonary tumors, asthma-like symptoms, and the like in experimental animals. The involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is suggested in the injuries induced by DEP, though the generation of ROS has not been proven. The present study provided the first direct evidence of *OH generation in the lungs of living mice after intratracheal instillation of DEP, using noninvasive L-band ESR spectroscopy and a membrane-impermeable nitroxyl probe. *OH generation is confirmed with the enhancement of in vivo ESR signal decay rate of the probe. The decay rate at mid-thorax was significantly enhanced in DEP-treated mice compared to that in vehicle-treated mice. The enhancement was completely suppressed by the administration of either *OH scavengers, catalase, or desferrioxamine, while the administration of SOD further increased the rate. The administration of Fenton's reagents into the lung also enhanced the decay rate of the probe at mid-thorax of mice. These results clearly provided evidence that the intratracheal exposure to DEP in mice produced *OH in the lung through an iron-catalyzed reaction of superoxide/H(2)O(2). This first direct evidence of *OH generation in DEP-treated mice lung may be utilized to determine treatments for DEP-induced lung injury.

Development of separable electron spin resonance-computed tomography imaging for multiple radical species: an application to .OH and .NO

A method of separable ESR-CT (electron spin resonance-computed tomography) imaging for multiple radical species was developed and applied to imaging of .OH and .NO. The algorithm was improved by combining filtered back-projection with a modified algebraic reconstruction technique to enhance accuracy and shorten calculation time. With this algorithm, spectral-spatial images of the phantom consisting of 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5,-tetramethylpyrrolidine-N-oxyl and 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5,-tetramethylimidazoline-3-oxide-1-oxyl could be obtained in different directions by rotating the spatial axis. The spatial function of individual radicals was extracted by each of the two methods from each spectral-spatial image. The separative 2D images of each radical were individually constructed using the spatial function obtained with the two methods. By comparing the separative images with the phantom sample, the algorithm for separable ESR-CT imaging was established. This ESR-CT technique was combined with L-band ESR spectroscopy and applied to the separative imaging of .OH and .NO, which were spin trapped with 5, 5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) and Fe(2+)-N-methyl-D-glucamine dithiocarbamate complex, respectively. The ESR signal of DMPO-OH decreased gradually during data acquisition, and the decrease was calibrated by extrapolating the signal intensity to the beginning of data sampling. Both the position and size of the individual images for .OH and .NO were in very good agreement with the findings for the sample.

A new nitroxyl-probe with high retention in the brain and its application for brain imaging

In order to estimate free radical reactions and image them in the brain of living animals, a nitroxyl spin-probe, carboxy-PROXYL acetoxymethyl ester (CxP-AM) was newly synthesized. CxP-AM was designed to be hydrolyzed by esterase, but not by lipase, so that it would pass through the blood-brain barrier and be retained in the cytosolic phase of parenchymal cells in the brain after intravenous injection. The pharmacokinetics of CxP-AM was compared with those of carboxy-PROXYL (CxP) and its methyl ester (CxP-M). Carboxyl esterase almost completely hydrolyzed CxP-AM within 3 min. After intravenous injection, the brain retained 1.8 times more CxP-AM than CxP-M, and retained it for more than 30 min. Electron spin resonance computed tomographic (ESR-CT) imaging of CxP-AM in the heads of mice produced marked contrast in the encephalon region, while CxP was distributed only in the extracranial region and CxP-M was distributed in both regions, confirming the pharmacokinetics of CxP-AM. The decay rate of CxP-AM determined with time-resolved ESR-CT imaging was different in the two brain regions, suggesting regional differences in the total reducing capability. CxP-AM should become a powerful probe for the investigation and diagnosis of free radical reactions and their imaging in the brain.