Targeting NF-κB signaling pathway in cancer by dietary polyphenols

Modern aspects of the use of natural polyphenols in tumor prevention and therapy

Polyphenols are secondary plant metabolites or organic compounds synthesized by them. In other words, these are molecules that are found in plants. Due to the wide variety of polyphenols and the plants in which they are found, these compounds are divided according to the source of origin, the function of the polyphenols, and their chemical structure; where the main ones are flavonoids. All the beneficial properties of polyphenols have not yet been studied, since this group of substances is very extensive and diverse. However, most polyphenols are known to be powerful antioxidants and have anti-inflammatory effects. Polyphenols help fight cell damage caused by free radicals and immune system components. In particular, polyphenols are credited with a preventive effect that helps protect the body from certain forms of cancer. The onset and progression of tumors may be related directly to oxidative stress, or inflammation. These processes can increase the amount of DNA damage and lead to loss of control over cell division. A number of studies have shown that oxidative stress uncontrolled by antioxidants or an uncontrolled and prolonged inflammatory process increases the risk of developing sarcoma, melanoma, and breast, lung, liver, and prostate cancer. Therefore, a more in-depth study of the effect of polyphenolic compounds on certain signaling pathways that determine the complex cascade of oncogenesis is a promising direction in the search for new methods for the prevention and treatment of tumors.

p-Coumaric acid, Kaempferol, Astragalin and Tiliroside Influence the Expression of Glycoforms in AGS Gastric Cancer Cells

Abnormal glycosylation of cancer cells is considered a key factor of carcinogenesis related to growth, proliferation, migration and invasion of tumor cells. Many plant-based polyphenolic compounds reveal potential anti-cancer properties effecting cellular signaling systems. Herein, we assessed the effects of phenolic acid, p-coumaric acid and flavonoids such as kaempferol, astragalin or tiliroside on expression of selected cancer-related glycoforms and enzymes involved in their formation in AGS gastric cancer cells. The cells were treated with 80 and 160 µM of the compounds. RT-PCR, Western blotting and ELISA tests were performed to determine the influence of polyphenolics on analyzed factors. All the examined compounds inhibited the expression of MUC1, ST6GalNAcT2 and FUT4 mRNAs. C1GalT1, St3Gal-IV and FUT4 proteins as well as MUC1 domain, Tn and sialyl T antigen detected in cell lysates were also lowered. Both concentrations of kaempferol, astragalin and tiliroside also suppressed ppGalNAcT2 and C1GalT1 mRNAs. MUC1 cytoplasmic domain, sialyl Tn, T antigens in cell lysates and sialyl T in culture medium were inhibited only by kaempferol and tiliroside. Nuclear factor NF-κB mRNA expression decreased after treatment with both concentrations of kaempferol, astragalin and tiliroside. NF-κB protein expression was inhibited by kaempferol and tiliroside. The results indicate the rationality of application of examined polyphenolics as potential preventive agents against gastric cancer development.

Polyphenol Mechanisms against Gastric Cancer and Their Interactions with Gut Microbiota: A Review

The lack of new drugs and resistance to existing drugs are serious problems in gastric cancer(GC) treatment. The research found polyphenols possess anti-Helicobacter pylori(Hp) and antitumor activities and may be used in the research and development of drugs for cancer prevention and treatment. However, polyphenols are affected by their chemical structures and physical properties, which leads to relatively low bioavailability and bioactivity in vivo. The intestinal flora can improve the absorption, utilization, and biological activity of polyphenols, whereas polyphenol compounds can increase the richness of the intestinal flora, reduce the activity of carcinogenic bacteria, stabilize the proportion of core flora, and maintain homeostasis of the intestinal microenvironment. Our review summarizes the gastrointestinal flora-mediated mechanisms of polyphenol against GC.

An In-Depth Study on the Metabolite Profile and Biological Properties of Primula auriculata Extracts: A Fascinating Sparkle on the Way from Nature to Functional Applications

The biological activity of the aerial part and rhizomes of Primula auriculata were assessed for the first time. The biological activities (antioxidant properties, enzyme inhibition, and AGE inhibition) as well as the phenolic and flavonoid contents of the ethyl acetate, ethanol, hydro-ethanol and water extracts of P. auriculata aerial parts and rhizomes were determined. Cell viability assays and gelatin zymography were also performed for MMP-2/-9 to determine the molecular mechanisms of action. The gene expression for MMPs was described with RT-PCR. The levels of various proteins, including phospho-Nf-κB, BCL-2, BAX, p-53, and cyclin D1 as well as RAGE were measured using Western blot analysis. The hydro-ethanol extract of the aerial part possessed the highest phenolic (56.81 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (63.92 mg RE/g) contents. In-depth profiling of the specialized metabolites by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) allowed for the identification and annotation of 65 compounds, including phenolic acids and glycosides, flavones, flavonols, chalcones, dihydrochalcones, and saponins. The hydro-ethanol extract of the aerial parts (132.65, 180.87, 172.46, and 108.37 mg TE/g, for the DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP assays, respectively) and the ethanol extract of the rhizomes (415.06, 638.30, 477.77, and 301.02 mg TE/g, for the DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP assays, respectively) exhibited the highest free radical scavenging and reducing activities. The ethanol and hydro-ethanol extracts of both the P. auriculata aerial part and rhizomes exhibited higher inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase, while the hydro-ethanol extracts (1.16 mmol ACAE/g, for both the aerial part and rhizomes extracts) were more active in the inhibition of α-glucosidase. After the treatment of an HT-29 colorectal cancer cell line with the extracts, the apoptosis mechanism was initiated, the integrity of the ECM was remodeled, and cell proliferation was also taken under control. In this way, Primula extracts were shown to be potential drug sources in the treatment of colorectal cancer. They were also detected as natural MMP inhibitors. The findings presented in the present study appraise the bioactivity of P. auriculata, an understudied species. Additional assessment is required to evaluate the cytotoxicity of P. auriculata as well as its activity in ex vivo systems.

Effective suppression of triple negative breast cancer by paclitaxel nanoparticles conjugated with transmembrane TNF-α monoclonal antibody

Transmembrane TNF-α (tmTNF), a transmembrane form of TNF-α, was reported overexpressed in approximately 84% of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients and has emerged as a valid candidate biomarker for targeting TNBC. Paclitaxel is a first-line chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer, but suffers from low water solubility, resulting in its low bioavailability. To achieve site-specific delivery of the anticancer chemotherapeutic drug (paclitaxel) on TNBC, we developed tmTNF-α monoclonal antibody (mAb)-conjugated paclitaxel (PTX) nanoparticles (NPs) (tmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs) as potential nanocarriers. This targeted delivery-therapy nanocarriers was conducted by using an emulsification-evaporation method. tmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs displayed favorable physicochemical properties. Compared with the control groups, tumor growth in human MDA-MB-231 xenograft mice was suppressed significantly by tmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs. TmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs exerts anti-tumor effects via promoting apoptosis and regulating mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) / protein kinase B (AKT)/ mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) cascade, as well as AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and nuclear factor Kappa-B (NF-κB) pathways. Moreover, tmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs can inhibit the process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in TNBC to suppress tumor progression and metastasis. Together, the novel tmTNF-α mAb-PTX NPs based targeted drug delivery system is a potentially highly effective approach for treating TNBC.

Modulation of Inflammation by Plant-Derived Nutraceuticals in Tendinitis

Tendinitis (tendinopathy) is a pro-inflammatory and painful tendon disease commonly linked with mechanical overuse and associated injuries, drug abuse, and lifestyle factors (including poor diet and physical inactivity) that causes significant healthcare expenditures due to its high incidence. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) is one of the major pro-inflammatory transcription factors, along with other inflammation signaling pathways, triggered by a variety of stimuli, including cytokines, endotoxins, physical and chemical stressors, hypoxia, and other pro-inflammatory factors. Their activation is known to regulate the expression of a multitude of genes involved in inflammation, degradation, and cell death. The pathogenesis of tendinitis is still poorly understood, whereas efficient and sustainable treatment is missing. Targeting drug suppression of the key inflammatory regulators represents an effective strategy for tendinitis therapy, but requires a comprehensive understanding of their principles of action. Conventional monotherapies are often ineffective and associated with severe side effects in patients. Therefore, agents that modulate multiple cellular targets represent therapeutic treatment potential. Plant-derived nutraceuticals have been shown to act as multi-targeting agents against tendinitis via various anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, whereat they were able to specifically modulate numerous signaling pathways, including NF-κB, p38/MAPK, JNK/STAT3, and PI3K/Akt, thus down-regulating inflammatory processes. This review discusses the utility of herbal nutraceuticals that have demonstrated safety and tolerability as anti-inflammatory agents for the prevention and treatment of tendinitis through the suppression of catabolic signaling pathways. Limitations associated with the use of nutraceuticals are also described.

In Vitro Protective Effects of a Standardized Extract From Cynara Cardunculus L. Leaves Against TNF-α-Induced Intestinal Inflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) represents a group of progressive disorders characterized by recurrent chronic inflammation of the gut. New unconventional therapies based on plant derived compounds capable of preventing and/or reducing acute or chronic inflammation could represent a valid alternative for the treatment or prevention of IBDs. Cynara cardunculus L. leaves, considered a food-waste suitable as a rich source of bioactive polyphenols including luteolin and chlorogenic acid, has been reported for its positive effects in digestive tract. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the in vitro molecular mechanisms of beneficial effects of a standardized polyphenol-rich extract obtained from the leaves of Cynara cardunculus L (CCLE) against acute intestinal inflammation induced by TNF-α on intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells. CCLE prevented TNF-α-induced NF-κB inflammatory pathway and the overexpression of IL-8 and COX-2. In addition, CCLE was able to improve basal intracellular antioxidant power in both TNF-α-unexposed or -exposed Caco-2 cells and this effect was associated to the activation of Nrf2 pathway, a master regulator of redox homeostasis affecting antioxidant and phase II detoxifying genes, stimulating an adaptive cellular response. In conclusion, our data clearly evidenced that, although considered a waste, Cynara cardunculus leaves may be used to obtain extracts rich in bioactive polyphenols potentially useful for prevention and treatment of inflammatory intestinal diseases.

Pistachio hull polysaccharide protects Nile tilapia against LPS-induced excessive inflammatory responses and oxidative stress, possibly via TLR2 and Nrf2 signaling pathways

Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrates found in living organisms, which have several physiological functions. In the present study, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were fed diets containing three levels (0%, 0.2%, and 0.6%) of Pistacia vera hull polysaccharide (PHP) for 45 days and then injected with PBS or bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Before the LPS challenge, Nile tilapia fed 0.2% and 0.6% PHP showed significantly increased mean final weight and weight gain compared to those received 0% PHP. The specific growth rate and feed conversion ratio were significantly improved in the treatment fed 0.6% PHP compared to the remaining groups. After LPS challenge, the activities of liver antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase exhibited the highest values in the 0.6% PHP group. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly augmented in the model (fed 0% PHP diet and injected with LPS) and 0.2% PHP groups compared to the control. However, MDA showed decreased levels in the 0.6% PHP group. LPS induced higher mRNA and/or protein levels of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88 (Myd88), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and interferon γ (IFN-γ) in Nile tilapia liver. However, PHP administration significantly upregulated the expression of interleukin 10 (IL-10), nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), SOD, and CAT, but markedly suppressed TLR2, NF-κB, Myd88, and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and/or production in the liver. The findings of the current study indicated that PHP has positive effects on growth performance, immune gene-related expression, and antioxidative activities. We can conclude that PHP can attenuate LPS-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in vivo, possibly via induction of Nrf2 and blockade of TLR2/Myd88/NF-κB pathways in Nile tilapia.

Functional metabolome profiling may improve individual outcomes in colorectal cancer management implementing concepts of predictive, preventive, and personalized medical approach

Objectives

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common solid tumors worldwide, but its diagnosis and treatment are limited. The objectives of our study were to compare the metabolic differences between CRC patients and healthy controls (HC), and to identify potential biomarkers in the serum that can be used for early diagnosis and as effective therapeutic targets. The aim was to provide a new direction for CRC predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM).

Methods

In this study, CRC patients (n = 30) and HC (n = 30) were recruited. Serum metabolites were assayed using an ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) technology. Subsequently, CRC cell lines (HCT116 and HCT8) were treated with metabolites to verify their function. Key targets were identified by molecular docking, thermal shift assay, and protein overexpression/inhibition experiments. The inhibitory effect of celastrol on tumor growth was also assessed, which included IC50 analysis, nude mice xenografting, molecular docking, protein overexpression/inhibition experiments, and network pharmacology technology.

Results

In the CRC group, 15 serum metabolites were significantly different in comparison with the HC group. The level of glycodeoxycholic acid (GDCA) was positively correlated with CRC and showed high sensitivity and specificity for the clinical diagnostic reference (AUC = 0.825). In vitro findings showed that GDCA promoted the proliferation and migration of CRC cell lines (HCT116 and HCT8), and Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) was identified as one of the key targets of GDCA. The IC50 of celastrol in HCT116 cells was 121.1 nM, and the anticancer effect of celastrol was supported by in vivo experiments. Based on the potential of GDCA in PPPM, PARP-1 was found to be significantly correlated with the anticancer functions of celastrol.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that GDCA is an abnormally produced metabolite of CRC, which may provide an innovative molecular biomarker for the predictive identification and targeted prevention of CRC. In addition, PARP-1 was found to be an important target of GDCA that promotes CRC; therefore, celastrol may be a potential targeted therapy for CRC via its effects on PARP-1. Taken together, the pathophysiology and progress of tumor molecules mediated by changes in metabolite content provide a new perspective for predictive, preventive, and personalized medical of clinical cancer patients based on the target of metabolites in vivo.Clinical trials registration number: ChiCTR2000039410.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13167-021-00269-8.

FGFC1 Exhibits Anti-Cancer Activity via Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling Pathway in EGFR-Mutant NSCLC Cells

FGFC1, an active compound isolated from the culture of marine fungi Stachybotrys longispora FG216, elicits fibrinolytic, anti-oxidative, and anti-inflammatory activity. We have previously reported that FGFC1 inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of the non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in vitro. However, the precise mechanisms of FGFC1 on NSCLC and its anti-cancer activity in vivo remains unclear. Hence, this study was focused to investigate the effects and regulatory mechanisms of FGFC1 on two NSCLC cell lines, EGFR-mutant PC9 (ex19del) and EGFR wild-type H1299. Results suggested that FGFC1 significantly inhibited proliferation, colony formation, as well as triggered G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis of PC9 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, but no obvious inhibitory effects were observed in H1299 cells. Subsequently, transcriptome analysis revealed that FGFC1 significantly down-regulated 28 genes related to the NF-κB pathway, including IL-6, TNF-α, and ICAM-1 in the PC9 cells. We further confirmed that FGFC1 decreased the expression of protein p-IKKα/β, p-p65, p-IκB, IL-6, and TNF-α. Moreover, NF-κB inhibitor PDTC could strengthen the effects of FGFC1 on the expression of CDK4, Cyclin D1, cleaved-PARP-1, and cleaved-caspase-3 proteins, suggesting that the NF-κB pathway plays a major role in FGFC1-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Correspondingly, the nuclear translocation of p-p65 was also suppressed by FGFC1 in PC9 cells. Finally, the intraperitoneal injection of FGFC1 remarkably inhibited PC9 xenograft growth and decreased the expression of Ki-67, p-p65, IL-6, and TNF-α in tumors. Our results indicated that FGFC1 exerted anti-cancer activity in PC9 cells via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway, providing a possibility for FGFC1 to be used as a lead compound for the treatment of NSCLC in the future.

Plant-Based Polyphenols: Anti-Helicobacter pylori Effect and Improvement of Gut Microbiota

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection affects more than half of the world’s population, and thus, about 10 to 20% of people with H. pylori suffer from peptic ulcers, which may ultimately lead to gastric cancer. The increase in antibiotic resistance and susceptibility has encouraged the search for new alternative therapies to eradicate this pathogen. Several plant species are essential sources of polyphenols, and these bioactive compounds have demonstrated health-promoting properties, such as the gut microbiota stimulation, inflammation reduction, and bactericidal effect. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the potential effect of plant-based polyphenols against H. pylori and their role in the gut microbiota improvement.

NLRP2 inhibits cell proliferation and migration by regulating EMT in lung adenocarcinoma cells

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs) are crucial types of innate immune sensors and well known for their critical roles in the immune system. However, how NLRP2 functions in the progression of cancer is largely unknown. Here, we identified NLRP2 as an antioncogene in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) cells. Gain- and loss-of-function studies revealed that NLRP2 silencing promoted cell proliferation and migration by stimulating NF-kB signaling in the microenvironment, which induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype and cytoskeleton reorganization in LUAD cells. The addition of the NF-kB inhibitor rescued the function of NLRP2 on EMT. Moreover, NLRP2 increased the level of cofilin phosphorylation and repressed subsequent F-actin reorganization. Consistently, the in vivo study showed that NLRP2 played an inhibitory role in forming metastasis foci. Taken together, NLRP2 inhibited cell proliferation and migration by regulating EMT in LUAD cells, demonstrating the essential function of NLRP2 in the development of LUAD.

Encapsulation of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) leaf extract via an electrohydrodynamic method

Polyphenols from the leaves of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) are nutritious and bioactive substances that can be used as nutritional supplements. To improve their stability and bioaccessibility in vivo, chemical extracts of sea buckthorn leaves were, for the first time, encapsulated using electrohydrodynamic technology. The microcapsules were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The extract and microcapsules were evaluated for total phenols and flavonoids, total antioxidant activity, and their inhibitory effects on metabolic syndrome-related enzymes (α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and pancreatic lipase) under in vitro simulated digestion. The results indicated that the extract was successfully encapsulated; encapsulation protected polyphenols and flavonoids from degradation and increase their bioaccessibility in the intestine. The antioxidant activity and the inhibition of metabolic syndrome-related enzymes were better reserved after encapsulation. Our findings will help in promoting the potential of sea buckthorn as a nutritional supplement and expanding its commercial use.

Flavonoids against non-physiologic inflammation attributed to cancer initiation, development, and progression—3PM pathways

Inflammation is an essential pillar of the immune defense. On the other hand, chronic inflammation is considered a hallmark of cancer initiation and progression. Chronic inflammation demonstrates a potential to induce complex changes at molecular, cellular, and organ levels including but not restricted to the stagnation and impairment of healing processes, uncontrolled production of aggressive ROS/RNS, triggered DNA mutations and damage, compromised efficacy of the DNA repair machinery, significantly upregulated cytokine/chemokine release and associated patho-physiologic protein synthesis, activated signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis and tumor progression, abnormal tissue remodeling, and created pre-metastatic niches, among others. The anti-inflammatory activities of flavonoids demonstrate clinically relevant potential as preventive and therapeutic agents to improve individual outcomes in diseases linked to the low-grade systemic and chronic inflammation, including cancers. To this end, flavonoids are potent modulators of pro-inflammatory gene expression being, therefore, of great interest as agents selectively suppressing molecular targets within pro-inflammatory pathways. This paper provides in-depth analysis of anti-inflammatory properties of flavonoids, highlights corresponding mechanisms and targeted molecular pathways, and proposes potential treatment models for multi-level cancer prevention in the framework of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM / 3PM). To this end, individualized profiling and patient stratification are essential for implementing targeted anti-inflammatory approaches. Most prominent examples are presented for the proposed application of flavonoid-conducted anti-inflammatory treatments in overall cancer management.

The anticarcinogenic and anticancer effects of the dietary flavonoid, morin: Current status, challenges, and future perspectives

Flavonoids constitute one of the most important classes of polyphenols, which have been found to have a wide range of biological activities such as anticancer effects. A large body of evidence demonstrates that morin as a pleiotropic dietary flavonoid possesses potent anticarcinogenic and anticancer activities with minimal toxicity against normal cells. The present review comprehensively elaborates the molecular mechanisms underlying antitumorigenic and anticancer effects of morin. Morin exerts its anticarcinogenic effects through multiple cancer preventive mechanisms, including reduction of oxidative stress, activation of phase II enzymes, induction of apoptosis, attenuation of inflammatory mediators, and downregulation of p-Akt and NF-κB expression. A variety of molecular targets and signaling pathways such as apoptosis, cell cycle, reactive oxygen species (ROS), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and microRNAs (miRNAs) as well as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), NF-κB, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and Hippo pathways have been found to be involved in the anticancer effects of morin. In the adjuvant therapy, morin has been shown to have synergistic anticancer effects with several chemotherapeutic drugs. The findings of this review indicate that morin can act as a promising chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agent.

A Perspective on Withania somnifera Modulating Antitumor Immunity in Targeting Prostate Cancer

Medicinal plants serve as a lead source of bioactive compounds and have been an integral part of day-to-day life in treating various disease conditions since ancient times. Withaferin A (WFA), a bioactive ingredient of Withania somnifera, has been used for health and medicinal purposes for its adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties long before the published literature came into existence. Nearly 25% of pharmaceutical drugs are derived from medicinal plants, classified as dietary supplements. The bioactive compounds in these supplements may serve as chemotherapeutic substances competent to inhibit or reverse the process of carcinogenesis. The role of WFA is appreciated to polarize tumor-suppressive Th1-type immune response inducing natural killer cell activity and may provide an opportunity to manipulate the tumor microenvironment at an early stage to inhibit tumor progression. This article signifies the cumulative information about the role of WFA in modulating antitumor immunity and its potential in targeting prostate cancer.

Multifaceted role of phyto-derived polyphenols in nanodrug delivery systems

As naturally occurring bioactive products, several lines of evidence have shown the potential of polyphenols in the medical intervention of various diseases, including tumors, inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. Notably, owing to the particular molecular structure, polyphenols can combine with proteins, metal ions, polymers, and nucleic acids providing better strategies for polyphenol-delivery strategies. This contributes to the inherent advantages of polyphenols as important functional components for other drug delivery strategies, e.g., protecting nanodrugs from oxidation as a protective layer, improving the physicochemical properties of carbohydrate polymer carriers, or being used to synthesize innovative functional delivery vehicles. Polyphenols have emerged as a multifaceted player in novel drug delivery systems, both as therapeutic agents delivered to intervene in disease progression and as essential components of drug carriers. Although an increasing number of studies have focused on polyphenol-based nanodrug delivery including epigallocatechin-3-gallate, curcumin, resveratrol, tannic acid, and polyphenol-related innovative preparations, these molecules are not without inherent shortcomings. The active biochemical characteristics of polyphenols constitute a prerequisite to their high-frequency use in drug delivery systems and likewise to provoke new challenges for the design and development of novel polyphenol drug delivery systems of improved efficacies. In this review, we focus on both the targeted delivery of polyphenols and the application of polyphenols as components of drug delivery carriers, and comprehensively elaborate on the application of polyphenols in new types of drug delivery systems. According to the different roles played by polyphenols in innovative drug delivery strategies, potential limitations and risks are discussed in detail including the influences on the physical and chemical properties of nanodrug delivery systems, and their influence on normal physiological functions inside the organism.

Punicalagin in Cancer Prevention-Via Signaling Pathways Targeting

The extract of pomegranate (Punica granatum) has been applied in medicine since ancient times due to its broad-spectrum health-beneficial properties. It is a rich source of hydrolyzable tannins and anthocyanins, exhibiting strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antineoplastic properties. Anticancer activities of pomegranate with reference to modulated signaling pathways in various cancer diseases have been recently reviewed. However, less is known about punicalagin (Pug), a prevailing compound in pomegranate, seemingly responsible for its most beneficial properties. In this review, the newest data derived from recent scientific reports addressing Pug impact on neoplastic cells are summarized and discussed. Its attenuating effect on signaling circuits promoting cancer growth and invasion is depicted. The Pug-induced redirection of signal-transduction pathways from survival and proliferation into cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, senescence, and autophagy (thus compromising neoplastic progression) is delineated. Considerations presented in this review are based mainly on data obtained from in vitro cell line models and concern the influence of Pug on human cervical, ovarian, breast, lung, thyroid, colorectal, central nervous system, bone, as well as other cancer types.

Neobavaisoflavone May Modulate the Activity of Topoisomerase Inhibitors towards U-87 MG Cells: An In Vitro Study

Despite many advances in therapy, glioblastoma (GB) is still characterized by its poor prognosis. The main reason for this is unsuccessful treatment, which slightly extends the duration of remission; thus, new regimens are needed. One of many types of chemotherapeutics that are being investigated in this field is topoisomerase inhibitors, mainly in combination therapy with other drugs. On the other hand, the search for new anti-cancer substances continues. Neobavaisoflavone (NBIF) is a natural compound isolated from Psoralea corylifolia L., which possesses anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of NBIF in human U-87 MG glioblastoma cells in comparison to normal human NHA astrocytes, and to examine if it influences the activity of irinotecan, etoposide, and doxorubicin in this in vitro model. We demonstrated that NBIF decreases U-87 MG cells viability in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that it inhibits cell growth and causes glutathione (GSH) depletion more intensely in U-87 MG cells than in astrocytes. This study also provides, for the first time, evidence of the potentialization of the doxorubicin effect by NBIF, which was shown by the reduction in the viability in U-87 MG cells.

Systematic Bioinformatic Analyses of Nutrigenomic Modifications by Polyphenols Associated with Cardiometabolic Health in Humans-Evidence from Targeted Nutrigenomic Studies

Cardiometabolic disorders are among the leading causes of mortality in the human population. Dietary polyphenols exert beneficial effects on cardiometabolic health in humans. Molecular mechanisms, however, are not completely understood. Aiming to conduct in-depth integrative bioinformatic analyses to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effects of polyphenols on cardiometabolic health, we first conducted a systematic literature search to identify human intervention studies with polyphenols that demonstrate improvement of cardiometabolic risk factors in parallel with significant nutrigenomic effects. Applying the predefined inclusion criteria, we identified 58 differentially expressed genes at mRNA level and 5 miRNAs, analyzed in peripheral blood cells with RT-PCR methods. Subsequent integrative bioinformatic analyses demonstrated that polyphenols modulate genes that are mainly involved in the processes such as inflammation, lipid metabolism, and endothelial function. We also identified 37 transcription factors that are involved in the regulation of polyphenol modulated genes, including RELA/NFKB1, STAT1, JUN, or SIRT1. Integrative bioinformatic analysis of mRNA and miRNA-target pathways demonstrated several common enriched pathways that include MAPK signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, focal adhesion, or PPAR signaling pathway. These bioinformatic analyses represent a valuable source of information for the identification of molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial health effects of polyphenols and potential target genes for future nutrigenetic studies.

Resveratrol for targeting the tumor microenvironment and its interactions with cancer cells

Tumor resistance to therapy modalities is one of the major challenges to the eradication of cancer cells and complete treatment. Tumor includes a wide range of cancer and non-cancer cells that play key roles in the proliferation of cancer cells and suppression of anti-tumor immunity. For overcoming tumor resistance to therapy, it is important to have in-depth knowledge relating to intercellular communications within the tumor microenvironment (TME). TME includes various types of immune cells such as CD4 + T lymphocytes, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, and T regulatory cells (Tregs). Furthermore, some non-immune cells like cancer stem cells (CSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are involved in the promotion of tumor growth. The interactions between these cells with cancer cells play a key role in tumor growth or inhibition. Resveratrol as a natural agent has shown the ability to modulate the immune system to potentiate anti-tumor immunity and also help to attenuate cancer cells and CSCs resistance. Thus, this review explains how resveratrol can modulate interactions within TME.

The role of emerging micro-scale vegetables in human diet and health benefits-an updated review based on microgreens

Increasing public concern about health has prompted humans to find new sources of food. Microgreens are young and immature plants that have been recently introduced as a new category of vegetables, adapting their production at the micro-scale. In this paper, the chemical compositions including micro-nutrients and some typical phytochemicals of microgreens are summarized. Their edible safety and potential health benefits are also reviewed. Microgreens play an increasingly vital role in health-promoting diets. They are considered good sources of nutritional and bioactive compounds, and show potential in the prevention of malnutrition and chronic diseases. Some strategies in the pre- or post-harvest stages of microgreens can be further applied to obtain better nutritional, functional, and sensorial quality with freshness and extended shelf life. This review provides valuable nutrient data and health information for microgreens, laying a theoretical foundation for people to consume microgreens more wisely, and providing great value for the development of functional products with microgreens.

New Polyketides With Anti-Inflammatory Activity From the Fungus Aspergillus rugulosa

Two new polyketide compounds, asperulosins A and B (1–2), and one new prenylated small molecule, asperulosin C (3), along with nine known compounds (4–12), were isolated and identified from a fungus Aspergillus rugulosa. Their structures were extensively elucidated via HRESIMS, 1D, and 2D NMR analysis. The absolute configurations of the new compounds were determined by the comparison of their electronic circular dichroism (ECD), calculated ECD spectra, and the detailed discussion with those in previous reports. Structurally, compounds 1 and 2 belonged to the polyketide family and were from different origins. Compound 2 was constructed by five continuous quaternary carbon atoms, which occur rarely in natural products. All of the isolates were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity against the production of nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells. Among those, compounds 1 and 5 showed a significant inhibitory effect on NO production with IC₅₀ values of 1.49 ± 0.31 and 3.41 ± 0.85 μM, respectively. Additionally, compounds 1 and 5 markedly increased the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL10 while suppressing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, MCP-1, and IL12. Besides, 1 and 5 inhibited the transcription level of pro-inflammatory macrophage markers IL6, IL1β, and TNF-α while remarkably elevating the anti-inflammatory factor IL10 and M2 macrophage markers ARG1 and CD206. Moreover, 1 and 5 restrained the expression and nuclear translocation of NF-κB, as well as its downstream signaling proteins COX-2 and iNOS. All these results suggest that 1 and 5 have potential as anti-inflammatory agents, with better or comparable activities than those of the positive control, dexamethasone.

Induced Cell Death as a Possible Pathway of Antimutagenic Action

The existing concepts of antimutagenesis are briefly reviewed. Published reports on antimutagenic and proapoptotic properties of some polyphenols and compounds of other chemical groups obtained in representative in vitro and in vivo experiments on eukaryotic test systems are discussed. The relationships between the antimutagenic and proapoptotic properties of the analyzed compounds (naringin, apigenin, resveratrol, curcumin, N-acetylcysteine, etc.) are considered in favor of the hypothesis on induced cell death as an antimutagenic tool.

Antioxidant Activities of Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J. B. Gillett) (Burseraceae) Leaf Extracts Using In Vitro and In Vivo Assays

Commiphora leptophloeos is widely used in folk medicine without any scientific basis. Considering this, the aim of this study was to evaluate the chemical profile and the antioxidant activity of C. leptophloeos leaf extracts using in vitro and in vivo assays. Six extracts were obtained from fresh leaves using a serial extraction (nonpolar to polar solvents). These extracts were first evaluated with the presence of phytochemical compounds using the methods thin layer chromatography (TLC), ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC-DAD), and high performance liquid chromatography, both with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). Based on the compounds identified, it was used some bioinformatics tools in order to identify possible pathway and gene targets. After that, the antioxidant capacity from these extracts was analysed by in vitro assays and in vivo assays using Caenorhabditis elegans model. Phytochemical analyses showed the presence of polyphenols, such as rutin, vitexin, and quercetin diglycosides in all extracts, especially in ethanol extract (EE) and methanol extract (EM). Bioinformatics analysis showed these polyphenols linked to antioxidant pathways. Furthermore, EE and EM displayed a high antioxidant capacity in DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging assays. They also had no effect on cell viability for 3T3 nontumour cell. However, for B16-F10 tumour cell lines, these extracts had toxicity effect. In vivo assays using C. elegans N2 showed that EE was not toxic, and it did not affect its viability nor its development. Besides, EE increased worm survival under oxidative stress and reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels by 50%. Thus, C. leptophloeos EE displayed an important in vitro and in vivo antioxidant capacity. The EE extract has polyphenols, suggesting that these compounds may be responsible for a myriad of biological activities having this potential to be used in various biotechnological applications.

Regulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Plant Secondary Metabolites: A Novel Anticancer Therapeutic Approach

Simple Summary

Cancer is caused by the rapid and uncontrolled growth of cells that eventually lead to tumor formation. Genetic and epigenetic alterations are among the most critical factors in the onset of carcinoma. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds that play an essential role in cancer prevention and treatment. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are potential therapeutic targets of bioactive phytochemicals, and these compounds could regulate the expression of lncRNAs directly and indirectly. Here, we critically evaluate in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects of phytochemicals in numerous human cancers via regulation of lncRNA expression and their downstream target genes.

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that play an essential role in various cellular activities, such as differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of lncRNAs serves a fundamental role in the progression and initiation of various diseases, including cancer. Precision medicine is a suitable and optimal treatment method for cancer so that based on each patient’s genetic content, a specific treatment or drug is prescribed. The rapid advancement of science and technology in recent years has led to many successes in this particular treatment. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds extracted from fruits, vegetables, and plants. Through the downregulation of oncogenic lncRNAs or upregulation of tumor suppressor lncRNAs, these bioactive compounds can inhibit metastasis, proliferation, invasion, migration, and cancer cells. These natural products can be a novel and alternative strategy for cancer treatment and improve tumor cells’ sensitivity to standard adjuvant therapies. This review will discuss the antineoplastic effects of bioactive plant secondary metabolites (phytochemicals) via regulation of expression of lncRNAs in various human cancers and their potential for the treatment and prevention of human cancers.

Radix Tetrastigma Inhibits the Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer via Bax/Bcl-2/Caspase-9/Caspase-3 Pathway

Lung cancer with high mortality is regarded as a challenging global problem with unsatisfied curative effects. Clinically, the chemotherapy drugs are often faced with side-effects and tumor resistance. Radix Tetrastigma (RT) is a traditional Chinese herb and now regarded as a kind of functional food. In this study, A549-bearing nude mice control was adopted to evaluate the anti-tumor capacity of RT. Results demonstrated that RT showed excellent anti-tumor ability with no side-effect on mice compared to chemotherapy drug (5-Fu).Further studies proved that RT down-regulated the proliferation-related proteins (PCNA, Ki67) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Additionally, RT up-regulated the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, which caused the over-expression of Caspase-9, leading to the activation of downstream protein caspase-3, eventually resulting in apoptosis of A549 in solid tumor. These results together suggest that RT inhibits the non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) via Bax/Bcl2/Caspase-9/Caspase-3 pathway. Furthermore, the anti-A549 abilities of the main flavonoid components from RT were compared, and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside would play a role in RT's outstanding anti-NSCLC ability.

Systematic Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Inhibitory Function of Cinnamaldehyde in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Cinnamaldehyde (CA) is the main component extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine cinnamon. Recent studies revealed that CA has antiviral and anti-tumor effects. However, the effect and mechanism of CA on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) through whole transcriptome sequencing integrated analysis have not been systematically investigated. In this study, whole transcriptome sequencing was used to identify differentially expressed messenger RNAs (mRNAs), micro RNAs (miRNAs), and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) that were influenced by CA and screen regulatory pathways. The results showed that CA significantly inhibited proliferation, invasion, and migration, whereas it induced the apoptosis of NSCLC cells. CA inhibited tumor growth in vivo. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis revealed that these differentially expressed mRNAs were potentially implicated in the CA-suppressing malignant phenotypes of NSCLC. According to the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) hypothesis, a ceRNA network was constructed, including 13 mRNAs, 6 miRNAs, and 11 lncRNAs. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis of the 13 mRNAs in the ceRNA network showed that suppressors of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), BTG anti-proliferation factor 2 (BTG2), and Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) were significantly enriched in the JAK/STAT signaling pathway, RNA degradation, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway related to cancer. These findings indicated that SOCS1, BTG2, and BTK play an essential role in CA against NSCLC. Meanwhile, based on the ceRNA network, three lncRNAs (long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1504 [LINC01504], LINC01783, and THUMPD3 antisense RNA 1 [THUMPD3-AS1]) and three miRNAs (has-miR-155-5p, has-miR-7-5p, and has-miR-425-5p) associated with SOCS1, BTG2, and BTK may be important in CA against NSCLC. Taken together, the present study demonstrated the activity of CA against lung cancer and its potential use as a therapeutic agent.

Long Noncoding RNAs in the Metastasis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a common malignant tumor worldwide. Metastasis is the main cause of the death of OSCC patients. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), one of the key factors affecting OSCC metastasis, are a subtype of RNA with a length of more than 200 nucleotides that has little or no coding potential. In recent years, the important role played by lncRNAs in biological processes, such as chromatin modification, transcription regulation, RNA stability regulation, and mRNA translation, has been gradually revealed. More and more studies have shown that lncRNAs can regulate the metastasis of various tumors including OSCC at epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional levels. In this review, we mainly discussed the role and possible mechanisms of lncRNAs in OSCC metastasis. Most lncRNAs act as oncogenes and only a few lncRNAs have been shown to inhibit OSCC metastasis. Besides, we briefly introduced the research status of cancer-associated fibroblasts-related lncRNAs in OSCC metastasis. Finally, we discussed the research prospects of lncRNAs-mediated crosstalk between OSCC cells and the tumor microenvironment in OSCC metastasis, especially the potential research value of exosomes and lymphangiogenesis. In general, lncRNAs are expected to be used for screening, treatment, and prognosis monitoring of OSCC metastasis, but more work is still required to better understand the biological function of lncRNAs.

Anticancer and Immunomodulatory Benefits of Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Corms, an Underexploited Tuber Crop

Taro corms contain valuable bioactive molecules effective against cancer and cancer-related risk factors, such as carcinogens and biological agents, several pathophysiological conditions, including oxidative stress and inflammation, while controlling metabolic dysfunctions and boosting the immunological response. Such broad effects are achieved by the taro health-influencing compounds displaying antitumoral, antimutagenic, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-hyperglycemic, and anti-hyperlipidemic activities. Taro bioactivities are attributed to the combination of tarin, taro-4-I polysaccharide, taro polysaccharides 1 and 2 (TPS-1 and TPS-2), A-1/B-2 α-amylase inhibitors, monogalactosyldiacylglycerols (MGDGs), digalactosyldiacylglycerols (DGDGs), polyphenols, and nonphenolic antioxidants. Most of these compounds have been purified and successfully challenged in vitro and in vivo, proving their involvement in the aforementioned activities. Although these health-promoting effects have been recognized since ancient times, as well as other valuable features of taro for food profit, such as hypo-allergenicity, gluten-free, and carbohydrates with medium-glycemic index, taro crop remains underexploited. The popularization of taro intake should be considered a dietary intervention strategy to be applied to improve the overall health status of the organism and as supportive therapy to manage tumorigenesis.

Berry Phenolic and Volatile Extracts Inhibit Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Secretion in LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Cells through Suppression of NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Berries are a rich source of phytochemicals, especially phenolics well known for protective activity against many chronic diseases. Berries also contain a complex mixture of volatile compounds that are responsible for the unique aromas of berries. However, there is very limited information on the composition and potential health benefits of berry volatiles. In this study, we isolated phenolic and volatile fractions from six common berries and characterized them by HPLC/HPLC-MS and GC/GC-MS, respectively. Berry phenolic and volatile fractions were evaluated for an anti-inflammatory effect using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells by measuring levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. Results showed that LPS-induced excessive production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which were inhibited by berry phenolic and volatile extracts. Moreover, berry phenolic and volatile extracts reduced the nuclear translocation of NF-κB by blocking the phosphorylation of p65 and degradation of IκBα. These findings showed that berry volatiles from six berries had comparable anti-inflammatory effects to berry phenolics through the suppression of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines expression via NF-κB down-regulation, despite being present in the fruit at a lower concentration.

Antitumour Property of Pterocarpus santalinus Seeds Against DMBA-Induced Breast Cancer in Rats

Breast cancer has been one of the most common form of malignancy globally among women, for more than a decade. Despite various preventive and treatment measures, it remains associated with high incidence and mortality rate. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f. has been extensively used in Indian medicine system Ayurveda, due to its various medicinal properties. However, despite various research works on the anticancer activity of P santalinus, no studies have been reported on animal model. Therefore, this study was aimed to decipher the antitumour activity of ethanolic seeds extract of P santalinus on DMBA (7,12-dimethylbenz(a)-anthracene)-induced breast cancer in rats. Fifty-five-days-old weighed (150 ± 10 g) female Charles Foster rats (12 females) were used for the study. The rats were divided into 3 groups of 4 rats each. 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)-anthracene (single dose of 20 mg/mL dissolved in olive oil) was induced orally, to develop breast tumour. After the development of breast tumours (about 0.5 cm), the rats were treated with P santalinus ethanolic seeds extract (300 mg/kg body weight/day) orally for 5 weeks and then volume of tumour was measured. Oral administration of P santalinus extract resulted in about 49.5% tumour growth inhibition in the final week of treatment in DMBA + P santalinus group as compared with the DMBA group. Pterocarpus santalinus administration also significantly reduced (P < .0001) the serum malondialdehyde level from 58.81 ± 4.09 nmol/mL in DMBA group to 10.87 ± 1.20 nmol/mL in the DMBA + P santalinus group. Serum tumour necrosis factor-α level reduced significantly (P < .0001) from 80.43 ± 2.45 pg/mL in DMBA group to 28.30 ± 3.24 pg/mL in the DMBA + P santalinus group. The blood serum glucose level also reduced significantly (P < .0001) from 205.9 ± 22.22 mg/dL in DMBA group to 86.44 ± 8.36 in DMBA + P santalinus group. There was significant (P < .0001) improvement in the both the liver and kidney serum biomarkers level after P santalinus administration. The histological study of mammary tissues of rats shows that, in the DMBA group immature fibrocytes are completely replacing the normal adipocytes suggestive of fibroma molle, whereas in the DMBA + P santalinus group mature fibrocytes with multilayer glandular cells were seen denoting fibroadenoma. Thus, the P santalinus ethanolic seed extract possesses antitumorigenic, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic properties as well as hepato-renal protective effect. Hence, it may be concluded that P santalinus has therapeutic role against DMBA-induced breast cancer in rats and has a greater potential to develop as a chemotherapeutic agent in breast cancer treatment.

Anticancer Potential of Furanocoumarins: Mechanistic and Therapeutic Aspects

Cancer is one of the most extreme medical conditions in both developing and developed countries around the world, causing millions of deaths each year. Chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy are key for treatment approaches, but both have numerous adverse health effects. Furthermore, the resistance of cancerous cells to anticancer medication leads to treatment failure. The rising burden of cancer overall requires novel efficacious treatment modalities. Natural medications offer feasible alternative options against malignancy in contrast to western medication. Furanocoumarins' defensive and restorative impacts have been observed in leukemia, glioma, breast, lung, renal, liver, colon, cervical, ovarian, and prostate malignancies. Experimental findings have shown that furanocoumarins activate multiple signaling pathways, leading to apoptosis, autophagy, antioxidant, antimetastatic, and cell cycle arrest in malignant cells. Additionally, furanocoumarins have been shown to have chemo preventive and chemotherapeutic synergistic potential when used in combination with other anticancer drugs. Here, we address different pathways which are activated by furanocoumarins and their therapeutic efficacy in various tumors. Ideally, this review will trigger interest in furanocoumarins and their potential efficacy and safety as a cancer lessening agents.

Advances on Natural Polyphenols as Anticancer Agents for Skin Cancer

Polyphenols are one of most important phytochemicals distributing in herb plants, vegetables and fruits, which known as important anticancer agents. Given the high incidence and mortality of skin cancer, this study aimed to uncover the chemopreventive effects of polyphenols against skin cancer metastasis. Electronic databases including Scopus, PubMed, and Cochrane library were used to compile the literature from 2000 to August 2019. Only in vivo mechanistic studies with English full-texts were chosen for this review. Polyphenols were included in this study if they were administered in purified form; while total extract and fractions were excluded. Among the 8254 primarily selected papers, only a final number of 34 studies were included. The chemopreventive effects of polyphenols as anthocyanins, ellagitanins, EGCG, oleuropeindihydroxy phenyl, punicalagin, quercetin, resveratrol and theaflavin, were mainly examined in treatment of melanoma as the highly metastatic form of this cutaneous cancer. Those properties are mediated by modulation of angiogenesis, apoptosis, inflammation, metastasis, proliferation, pathways such as EGFR/MAPK, mTOR/PI3K/Akt, JAK/STAT, FAK/RTK2, PGE-2/VEGF, PGE-1/ERK/HIIF-1α, and modulation of related signals including NF-κB, P21WAF/CIP1, Bim, Bax, Bcl2, Bclx, Bim, Puma, Noxa, ILs and MMPs. Chemopreventive effects of polyphenols are mediated by several signaling pathways against skin carcinogenesis and metastasis, implying the importance of polyphenols to open up new horizons in development of anti-skin cancer therapeutic strategies.