Appendicitis and cholecystitis in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2009;52:586-596. [PMID: 20393411 DOI: 10.1097/grf.0b013e3181c11d10]

Imaging for acute pelvic pain in pregnancy

Acute pelvic pain in pregnancy presents diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. Standard imaging techniques need to be adapted to reduce harm to the foetus from X-rays because of their teratogenic and carcinogenic potential. Ultrasound remains the primary imaging investigation of the pregnant abdomen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been shown to be useful in the diagnosis of gynaecological and obstetric problems during pregnancy and in the setting of acute abdomen during pregnancy. MRI overcomes some of the limitations of ultrasound, mainly the size of the gravid uterus. MRI poses theoretical risks to the foetus and care must be taken to minimise these with the avoidance of contrast agents. Teaching Points • Ultrasound and MRI are the preferred investigations for acute pelvic pain during pregnancy. • Ultrasound remains the primary imaging investigation because of availability and portability. • MRI helps differentiate causes of acute pelvic pain when ultrasound is inconclusive.

Cholecystitis

Acute cholecystitis is defined as inflammation of the gallbladder and is usually caused by obstruction of the cystic duct. Cholescintigraphy is the most sensitive imaging modality for cholecystitis. The gold standard treatment of acute cholecystitis is laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Operating early in the disease course decreases overall hospital stay and avoids increased complications, conversion to open procedures, and mortality. Cholecystitis during pregnancy is a challenging problem for surgeons. Operative intervention is generally safe for both mother and fetus, given the improved morbidity of the laparoscopic approach compared with open, although increased caution should be exercised in women with gallstone pancreatitis.

Nonobstetric abdominal pain and surgical emergencies in pregnancy

The focus of this article is the evaluation and management of pregnant patients with nonobstetric abdominal pain and surgical emergencies. The anatomic and physiologic changes that occur during pregnancy can cause difficulties in interpreting patients' signs and symptoms in emergency departments. This article reviews some of the common causes of nonobstetric abdominal pain and surgical emergencies that present to emergency departments and discusses some of the literature surrounding the use of imaging modalities during pregnancy. After a review of these changes and their causes, imaging modalities that can be used for the assessment are discussed.

Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital: Case 34-2012: a 27-year-old woman in Ethiopia with severe pain, bleeding, and shock during labor

A 27-year-old woman was admitted to a hospital in Ethiopia because of severe abdominal pain during labor, with cessation of contractions. She had been in labor at home, pushing for 24 hours. On arrival at the hospital 3 hours later, she was in shock. A procedure was performed.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of safety of laparoscopic versus open appendicectomy for suspected appendicitis in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic appendicectomy has gained wide acceptance as an alternative to open appendicectomy during pregnancy. However, data regarding the safety and optimal surgical approach to appendicitis in pregnancy are still controversial.

METHODS

This was a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing laparoscopic and open appendicectomy in pregnancy identified using PubMed and Scopus search engines from January 1990 to July 2011. Two reviewers independently extracted data on fetal loss, preterm delivery, wound infection, duration of operation, hospital stay, Apgar score and birth weight between laparoscopic and open appendicectomy groups.

RESULTS

Eleven studies with a total of 3415 women (599 in laparoscopic and 2816 in open group) were included in the analysis. Fetal loss was statistically significantly worse in those who underwent laparoscopy compared with open appendicectomy; the pooled relative risk (RR) was 1·91 (95 per cent confidence interval (c.i.) 1·31 to 2·77) without heterogeneity. The pooled RR for preterm labour was 1·44 (0·68 to 3·06), but this risk was not statistically significant. The mean difference in length of hospital stay was - 0·49 (-1·76 to - 0·78) days, but this was not clinically significant. No significant difference was found for wound infection, birth weight, duration of operation or Apgar score.

CONCLUSION

The available low-grade evidence suggests that laparoscopic appendicectomy in pregnant women might be associated with a greater risk of fetal loss.

Severe sepsis and septic shock in pregnancy

Pregnancies complicated by severe sepsis and septic shock are associated with increased rates of preterm labor, fetal infection, and preterm delivery. Sepsis onset in pregnancy can be insidious, and patients may appear deceptively well before rapidly deteriorating with the development of septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, or death. The outcome and survivability in severe sepsis and septic shock in pregnancy are improved with early detection, prompt recognition of the source of infection, and targeted therapy. This improvement can be achieved by formulating a stepwise approach that consists of early provision of time-sensitive interventions such as: aggressive hydration (20 mL/kg of normal saline over the first hour), initiation of appropriate empiric intravenous antibiotics (gentamicin, clindamycin, and penicillin) within 1 hour of diagnosis, central hemodynamic monitoring, and the involvement of infectious disease specialists and critical care specialists familiar with the physiologic changes in pregnancy. Thorough physical examination and imaging techniques or empiric exploratory laparotomy are suggested to identify the septic source. Even with appropriate antibiotic therapy, patients may continue to deteriorate unless septic foci (ie, abscess, necrotic tissue) are surgically excised. The decision for delivery in the setting of antepartum severe sepsis or septic shock can be challenging but must be based on gestational age, maternal status, and fetal status. The natural inclination is to proceed with emergent delivery for a concerning fetal status, but it is imperative to stabilize the mother first, because in doing so the fetal status will likewise improve. Aggressive [corrected] treatment of sepsis can be expected to reduce the progression to severe sepsis and septic shock and prevention strategies can include preoperative skin preparations and prophylactic antibiotic therapy as well as appropriate immunizations.

Imaging the pregnant patient with abdominal pain

Imaging of pregnant patients with non-obstetric abdominal pain is reviewed, with an accompanying pictorial essay of cases with concentration on magnetic resonance imaging. Non-obstetric causes of abdominal pain during pregnancy are similar to those of non-pregnant patients. The most common causes are appendicitis and cholecystitis. Other causes are myriad and include biliary, gastrointestinal, infectious, inflammatory, and malignant etiologies, among others. The approach to imaging in pregnant patient is unique, as it is imperative to minimize potentially harmful radiation exposures to the fetus. Ultrasound and MRI are the primary modalities for evaluation of the pregnant patient with abdominal pain. The use of intravenous contrast is discouraged, except in highly-selected patients where there is no other way to obtain vital diagnostic information. CT is still used as the mainstay of evaluation of blunt abdominal trauma and is commonly used for diagnosis of small bowel obstruction, stone disease, and work-up of malignancy during pregnancy. A discussion of test selection and underlying rationale is presented.

Maternal postoperative complications after nonobstetric antenatal surgery

OBJECTIVE

Our primary objective is to estimate the occurrence of major maternal 30 day postoperative complications after nonobstetric antenatal surgery.

METHODS

We analyzed the 2005-2009 data files from the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program to assess outcomes for pregnant women undergoing nonobstetric antenatal surgery during any trimester of pregnancy as classified by CPT-4 codes. t Tests, χ(2), logistic regression and other tests were used to calculate composite 30-day major postoperative complications and associations of preoperative predictors with 30 day postoperative morbidity.

RESULTS

The most common nonobstetric antenatal surgical procedure among the 1969 included women was appendectomy (44.0%). The prevalence of composite 30-day major postoperative complications was 5.8% (n = 115). This included (not exclusive categories): return to the surgical operating room within 30 days of surgery 3.6%, infectious morbidity 2.0%, wound morbidity 1.4%, 30 day respiratory morbidity 2.0%, venous thromboembolic event morbidity 0.5%, postoperative blood transfusion 0.2%, and maternal mortality 0.25%.

CONCLUSION

Major maternal postoperative complications following nonobstetric antenatal surgery were low (5.8%). Maternal postoperative mortality was rare (0.25%).

Relationship between gallbladder surgery and ethnic admixture in African American and Hispanic American women

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to investigate whether differences in admixture in African American and Hispanic American adult women are associated with differences in gallbladder surgery.

METHODS

Gallbladder surgery history on entry to the Women's Health Initiative's (WHI) study was used as a dichotomous outcome measure for this study. The proportion of European, sub-Saharan African, and Amerindian (AMI) admixture was estimated for 10,841 African American and 4,620 Hispanic American women in WHI using 92 ancestry informative markers. Logistic regression analyses assessed the relationship between admixture and gallbladder surgery in WHI women (enrollment at ages >50, mean age 61 years) with or without adjusting for multiple covariates, including measures of adiposity, parity, alcohol use, and education.

RESULTS

There was a significant positive association between AMI admixture and the frequency of gallbladder surgery in Hispanic Americans. The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for AMI admixture group was OR=2.97, CI=2.01-4.38, P<10(-4). Although there were strong positive associations with parity and adiposity, and negative associations with alcohol consumption and education, accounting for these covariates did not remove the admixture association (OR=2.46, CI=1.62-3.73). In contrast, the effect of African admixture was nearly indistinguishable from that of the European admixture, both of which were protective in the Hispanic American group, and African admixture had a marginal association with decreased gallbladder surgery in the African American group. Measures of adiposity were associated with increased risk for gallbladder surgery and remained significant after accounting for admixture and each of the other covariates. Education level and alcohol use were associated with decreased risk for gallbladder disease. However, after accounting for the other covariates these variably remained significant.

CONCLUSIONS

AMI admixture is strongly associated with gallbladder surgery in women, even after adjustment for selected risk factors for cholelithiasis. Additional studies to ascertain the specific genetic risk factors underlying these associations are warranted.

Imaging of pregnant and lactating patients: part 2, evidence-based review and recommendations

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this article are to discuss the current evidence-based recommendations regarding the use of diagnostic imaging in the evaluation of pulmonary embolism, appendicitis, urolithiasis, and cholelithiasis during pregnancy.

CONCLUSION

Diagnostic imaging should be performed during pregnancy only with an understanding of the maternal and fetal risks and benefits, the comparative advantages of different modalities, and the unique anatomic and physiologic issues associated with pregnancy.

[Acute non-obstetrical diseases during pregnancy and role of the obstetrician]

The management of a pregnant woman with an acute non-obstetrical disease must be made in narrow collaboration with an obstetrician. This one must be warned from the beginning of the care of the patient. In a pregnant woman, any acute medical, surgical or traumatic non-obstetrical disease can have obstetrical consequences. The diagnostic and therapeutic management of an acute non-obstetrical disease can have iatrogenic consequences during pregnancy. The most often described risks are early pregnancy loss, intra-uterine fetal death, placenta abruption, direct fetal hurts, preterm labor, prematurity and its complications. Obstetrical complications can induce maternal and neonatal life-threatening risks. Simple and easily accessible examinations in emergency allow detecting the obstetrical consequences of an acute non-obstetrical disease. During the management of an acute non-obstetrical disease in a pregnant woman, the induced obstetrical consequence of the disease can require emergency action of the obstetrician in conditions associated with maternal life-threatening risk. During the management of an acute non-obstetrical disease in a pregnant woman, once the mother condition was stabilized, the obstetrician had to estimate the fetal consequences and to adapt his or her therapeutic attitude. He or she sets up the fetal and placental surveillance adapted to the obstetrical risks and decides on the duration of this surveillance.

Magnetic resonance imaging for the evaluation of acute abdominal pain in pregnancy

The investigation of acute abdominal pain in pregnancy is challenging. The use of ultrasound may be limited due to the patient's change in body habitus and computed tomography is not desirable due to fetal irradiation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has thus become increasingly popular in the evaluation of such patients, due to its lack of ionizing radiation, multiplanar capability and high contrast resolution. This review will detail the MRI technique required to image the pregnant abdomen and describe the MRI features of common causes of acute abdominal pain in pregnancy.