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Mesicek J, Lee H, Feldman T, Jiang X, Skobeleva A, Berdyshev EV, Haimovitz-Friedman A, Fuks Z, Kolesnick R. Ceramide synthases 2, 5, and 6 confer distinct roles in radiation-induced apoptosis in HeLa cells. Cell Signal 2010; 22:1300-7. [PMID: 20406683 PMCID: PMC4348005 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2010.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Revised: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The role of ceramide neo-genesis in cellular stress response signaling is gaining increasing attention with recent progress in elucidating the novel roles and biochemical properties of the ceramide synthase (CerS) enzymes. Selective tissue and subcellular distribution of the six mammalian CerS isoforms, combined with distinct fatty acyl chain length substrate preferences, implicate differential functions of specific ceramide species in cellular signaling. We report here that ionizing radiation (IR) induces de novo synthesis of ceramide to influence HeLa cell apoptosis by specifically activating CerS isoforms 2, 5, and 6 that generate opposing anti- and pro-apoptotic ceramides in mitochondrial membranes. Overexpression of CerS2 resulted in partial protection from IR-induced apoptosis whereas overexpression of CerS5 increased apoptosis in HeLa cells. Knockdown studies determined that CerS2 is responsible for all observable IR-induced C(24:0) CerS activity, and while CerS5 and CerS6 each confer approximately 50% of the C(16:0) CerS baseline synthetic activity, both are required for IR-induced activity. Additionally, co-immunoprecipitation studies suggest that CerS2, 5, and 6 might exist as heterocomplexes in HeLa cells, providing further insight into the regulation of CerS proteins. These data add to the growing body of evidence demonstrating interplay among the CerS proteins in a stress stimulus-, cell type- and subcellular compartment-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Mesicek
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Hyunmi Lee
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Taya Feldman
- Department of Cell Biology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Xuejun Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Anastasia Skobeleva
- Department of Medicine, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Evgeny V. Berdyshev
- Department of Medicine, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Zvi Fuks
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Richard Kolesnick
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
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52
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Snider AJ, Gandy KAO, Obeid LM. Sphingosine kinase: Role in regulation of bioactive sphingolipid mediators in inflammation. Biochimie 2010; 92:707-15. [PMID: 20156522 PMCID: PMC2878898 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Sphingolipids and their synthetic enzymes are emerging as important mediators in inflammatory responses and as regulators of immune cell functions. In particular, sphingosine kinase (SK) and its product sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) have been extensively implicated in these processes. SK catalyzes the phosphorylation of sphingosine to S1P and exists as two isoforms, SK1 and SK2. SK1 has been shown to be activated by cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin1-beta (IL1-beta). The activation of SK1 in this pathway has been shown to be, at least in part, required for mediating TNF-alpha and IL1-beta inflammatory responses in cells, including induction of cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX2). In addition to their role in inflammatory signaling, SK and S1P have also been implicated in various immune cell functions including, mast cell degranulation, migration of neutrophils, and migration and maturation of lymphocytes. The involvement of sphingolipids and sphingolipid metabolizing enzymes in inflammatory signaling and immune cell functions has implicated these mediators in numerous inflammatory disease states as well. The contribution of these mediators, specifically SK1 and S1P, to inflammation and disease are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley J. Snider
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29403, United States
| | - K. Alexa Orr Gandy
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29403, United States
| | - Lina M. Obeid
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29403, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29403, United States
- Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, United States
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53
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Filosto S, Castillo S, Danielson A, Franzi L, Khan E, Kenyon N, Last J, Pinkerton K, Tuder R, Goldkorn T. Neutral sphingomyelinase 2: a novel target in cigarette smoke-induced apoptosis and lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 44:350-60. [PMID: 20448054 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2009-0422oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is caused by exposure to cigarette smoke (CS). One mechanism of CS-induced lung injury is aberrant generation of ceramide, which leads to elevated apoptosis of epithelial and endothelial cells in the alveolar spaces. Recently, we discovered that CS-induced ceramide generation and apoptosis in pulmonary cells is governed by neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase) 2. In the current experiments, we expanded our studies to investigate whether nSMase2 governs ceramide generation and apoptosis in vivo using rodent and human models of CS-induced lung injury. We found that exposure of mice or rats to CS leads to colocalizing elevations of ceramide levels and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated X-dUTP nick end labeling-positive cells in lung tissues. These increases are nSMase2 dependent, and are abrogated by treatment with N-acetyl cysteine or anti-nSMase2 small interfering RNA (siRNA). We further showed that mice that are heterozygous for nSMase2 demonstrate significant decrease in ceramide generation after CS exposure, whereas acidic sphingomyelinase (aSMase) knockout mice maintain wild-type ceramide levels, confirming our previous findings (in human airway epithelial cells) that only nSMase2, and not aSMase, is activated by CS exposure. Lastly, we found that lung tissues from patients with emphysema (smokers) display significantly higher levels of nSMase2 expression compared with lung tissues from healthy control subjects. Taken together, these data establish the central in vivo role of nSMase2 in ceramide generation, aberrant apoptosis, and lung injury under CS exposure, underscoring its promise as a novel target for the prevention of CS-induced airspace destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Filosto
- Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of California Davis, School of Medicine, USA
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54
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Gangoiti P, Camacho L, Arana L, Ouro A, Granado MH, Brizuela L, Casas J, Fabriás G, Abad JL, Delgado A, Gómez-Muñoz A. Control of metabolism and signaling of simple bioactive sphingolipids: Implications in disease. Prog Lipid Res 2010; 49:316-34. [PMID: 20193711 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Revised: 02/18/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Simple bioactive sphingolipids include ceramide, sphingosine and their phosphorylated forms sphingosine 1-phosphate and ceramide 1-phosphate. These molecules are crucial regulators of cell functions. In particular, they play important roles in the regulation of angiogenesis, apoptosis, cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and inflammation. Decoding the mechanisms by which these cellular functions are regulated requires detailed understanding of the signaling pathways that are implicated in these processes. Most importantly, the development of inhibitors of the enzymes involved in their metabolism may be crucial for establishing new therapeutic strategies for treatment of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Gangoiti
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
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55
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Breslow DK, Collins SR, Bodenmiller B, Aebersold R, Simons K, Shevchenko A, Ejsing CS, Weissman JS. Orm family proteins mediate sphingolipid homeostasis. Nature 2010; 463:1048-53. [PMID: 20182505 PMCID: PMC2877384 DOI: 10.1038/nature08787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 647] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Despite the essential roles of sphingolipids both as structural components of membranes and critical signalling molecules, we have a limited understanding of how cells sense and regulate their levels. Here we reveal the function in sphingolipid metabolism of the ORM genes (known as ORMDL genes in humans)-a conserved gene family that includes ORMDL3, which has recently been identified as a potential risk factor for childhood asthma. Starting from an unbiased functional genomic approach in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we identify Orm proteins as negative regulators of sphingolipid synthesis that form a conserved complex with serine palmitoyltransferase, the first and rate-limiting enzyme in sphingolipid production. We also define a regulatory pathway in which phosphorylation of Orm proteins relieves their inhibitory activity when sphingolipid production is disrupted. Changes in ORM gene expression or mutations to their phosphorylation sites cause dysregulation of sphingolipid metabolism. Our work identifies the Orm proteins as critical mediators of sphingolipid homeostasis and raises the possibility that sphingolipid misregulation contributes to the development of childhood asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K. Breslow
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Graduate Program in Chemistry and Chemical Biology, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- The California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Sean R. Collins
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- The California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Bernd Bodenmiller
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruedi Aebersold
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kai Simons
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrasse 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Andrej Shevchenko
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrasse 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christer S. Ejsing
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrasse 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Jonathan S. Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- The California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 4 Street, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
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56
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Arana L, Gangoiti P, Ouro A, Trueba M, Gómez-Muñoz A. Ceramide and ceramide 1-phosphate in health and disease. Lipids Health Dis 2010; 9:15. [PMID: 20137073 PMCID: PMC2828451 DOI: 10.1186/1476-511x-9-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 02/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sphingolipids are essential components of cell membranes, and many of them regulate vital cell functions. In particular, ceramide plays crucial roles in cell signaling processes. Two major actions of ceramides are the promotion of cell cycle arrest and the induction of apoptosis. Phosphorylation of ceramide produces ceramide 1-phosphate (C1P), which has opposite effects to ceramide. C1P is mitogenic and has prosurvival properties. In addition, C1P is an important mediator of inflammatory responses, an action that takes place through stimulation of cytosolic phospholipase A2, and the subsequent release of arachidonic acid and prostaglandin formation. All of the former actions are thought to be mediated by intracellularly generated C1P. However, the recent observation that C1P stimulates macrophage chemotaxis implicates specific plasma membrane receptors that are coupled to Gi proteins. Hence, it can be concluded that C1P has dual actions in cells, as it can act as an intracellular second messenger to promote cell survival, or as an extracellular receptor agonist to stimulate cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lide Arana
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), PO Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
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Rotolo JA, Mesicek J, Maj J, Truman JP, Haimovitz-Friedman A, Kolesnick R, Fuks Z. Regulation of ceramide synthase-mediated crypt epithelium apoptosis by DNA damage repair enzymes. Cancer Res 2010; 70:957-67. [PMID: 20086180 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-1562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Acute endothelial cell apoptosis and microvascular compromise couple gastrointestinal tract irradiation to reproductive death of intestinal crypt stem cell clonogens (SCCs) following high-dose radiation. Genetic or pharmacologic inhibition of endothelial apoptosis prevents intestinal damage, but as the radiation dose is escalated, SCCs become directly susceptible to an alternate cell death mechanism, mediated via ceramide synthase (CS)-stimulated de novo synthesis of the proapoptotic sphingolipid ceramide, and p53-independent apoptosis of crypt SCCs. We previously reported that ataxia-telangiectasia mutated deficiency resets the primary radiation lethal pathway, allowing CS-mediated apoptosis at the low-dose range of radiation. The mechanism for this event, termed target reordering, remains unknown. Here, we show that inactivation of DNA damage repair pathways signals CS-mediated apoptosis in crypt SCCs, presumably via persistent unrepaired DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Genetic loss of function of sensors and transducers of DNA DSB repair confers the CS-mediated lethal pathway in intestines of sv129/B6Mre11(ATLD1/ATLD1) and C57BL/6(Prkdc/SCID) (severe combined immunodeficient) mice exposed to low-dose radiation. In contrast, CS-mediated SCC lethality was mitigated in irradiated gain-of-function Rad50(s/s) mice, and epistasis studies order Rad50 upstream of Mre11. These studies suggest unrepaired DNA DSBs as causative in target reordering in intestinal SCCs. As such, we provide an in vivo model of DNA damage repair that is standardized, can be exploited to understand allele-specific regulation in intact tissue, and is pharmacologically tractable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy A Rotolo
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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58
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Gómez-Muñoz A, Gangoiti P, Granado MH, Arana L, Ouro A. Ceramide-1-Phosphate in Cell Survival and Inflammatory Signaling. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 688:118-30. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6741-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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59
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Bryant L, Doyle T, Chen Z, Cuzzocrea S, Masini E, Vinci MC, Esposito E, Mazzon E, Petrusca DN, Petrache I, Salvemini D. Spinal ceramide and neuronal apoptosis in morphine antinociceptive tolerance. Neurosci Lett 2009; 463:49-53. [PMID: 19631718 PMCID: PMC2754041 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.07.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Revised: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 07/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Opiates, like morphine, are the most effective analgesics for treating acute and chronic severe pain, but their use is limited by the development of analgesic tolerance and hypersensitivity to innocuous and noxious stimuli. Because opioids are a mainstay of pain management, restoring their efficacy has great clinical importance. We have recently demonstrated that spinal ceramide, a sphingolipid signaling molecule plays a central role in the development of morphine antinociceptive tolerance. We now report that ceramide upregulation in dorsal horn tissues in response to chronic morphine administration is associated with significant neuronal apoptosis. Inhibition of ceramide biosynthesis attenuated both the increase in neuronal apoptosis and the development of antinociceptive tolerance. These findings indicate that spinal ceramide upregulation is a key pro-apoptotic event that occurs upstream of the development of morphine antinociceptive tolerance and support the rationale for development of inhibitors of ceramide biosynthesis as adjuncts to opiates for the management of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leesa Bryant
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Tim Doyle
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Zhoumo Chen
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Italy
| | - Emanuela Masini
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Italy
| | - M. Cristina Vinci
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Italy
| | - Emanuela Esposito
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Italy
| | - Emanuela Mazzon
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Italy
| | - Daniela Nicoleta Petrusca
- Indiana University Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Occupational Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Irina Petrache
- Indiana University Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Occupational Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Daniela Salvemini
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
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INHIBITION OF CERAMIDE BIOSYNTHESIS AMELIORATES PATHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SPINAL CORD INJURY. Shock 2009; 31:634-44. [DOI: 10.1097/shk.0b013e3181891396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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61
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Cuzzocrea S, Di Paola R, Genovese T, Mazzon E, Esposito E, Crisafulli C, Bramanti P, Salvemini D. Anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects of fumonisin B1, an inhibitor of ceramide synthase, in a rodent model of splanchnic ischemia and reperfusion injury. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 327:45-57. [PMID: 18612046 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.108.139808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2025] Open
Abstract
Ceramide is a sphingolipid with potent proinflammatory and proapoptotic properties. This study sought to determine whether pharmacological inhibition of ceramide biosynthesis in the intestine attenuates pathophysiological sequelae of shock induced by splanchnic artery occlusion and reperfusion. Ischemia and reperfusion injury was induced in anesthetized rats by clamping both the superior mesenteric artery and the celiac artery for 45 min followed by reperfusion. Within 6 min after reperfusion, animals developed significant systemic hypotension with 100% of the animals dying during the 4-h period of reperfusion. In parallel experiments, animals were necropsied after 60 min of reperfusion, and the ileum was harvested for histological examination and assessment of biochemical changes. Administration of fumonisin B1 (FB1), a competitive and reversible inhibitor of ceramide synthase (3 mg/kg, 15 min before reperfusion), significantly reduced i) the increased ceramide expression as detected by immunohistochemistry; ii) peroxynitrite-mediated protein nitration; iii) infiltration of the reperfused intestine with polymorphonuclear neutrophils following a decrease in intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression; iv) production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha; and v) apoptosis in the ileum. Overall, tissue-protective effects were clearly observed upon histological examination of the ileum. These beneficial events were ultimately linked to decreases in both the development of hypotension and overall mortality. These results implicate ceramide as a key signaling molecule in splanchnic arterial ischemia and reperfusion-induced shock. The broader implications of our results provide a pharmacological rationale for the development of inhibitors of ceramide biosynthesis as novel therapeutics for ischemia and reperfusion-induced shock of several etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Messina, Italy
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62
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Abstract
Sphingolipids such as sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), ceramide, or sphingomyelin are essential constituents of plasma membranes and regulate many (patho)physiological cellular responses inducing apoptosis and cell survival, vascular permeability, mast cell activation, and airway smooth muscle functions. The complexity of sphingolipid biology is generated by a great variety of compounds, diverse receptors, and often antagonistic functions of different sphingolipids. For instance, apoptosis is promoted by ceramide and prevented by S1P, and pulmonary vascular permeability is increased by S1P2/3 receptors and by ceramide, whereas S1P1 receptors stabilize barrier integrity. Several enzymes of the sphingolipid metabolism respond to external stimuli such as sphingomyelinase isoenzymes that are activated by many stress stimuli and the sphingosine kinase isoenzymes that are activated by allergens. The past years have provided increasing evidence that these processes contribute to pulmonary disorders including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute lung injury, and cystic fibrosis. Sphingolipid metabolism offers several novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of lung diseases such as emphysema, asthma, cystic fibrosis, respiratory tract infection, sepsis, and acute lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Uhlig
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Aachen, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.
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