Map-based cloning of a gene sequence encoding a nucleotide-binding domain and a leucine-rich region at the Cre3 nematode resistance locus of wheat

Clusters of resistance genes in plants evolve by divergent selection and a birth-and-death process

Classical genetic and molecular data show that genes determining disease resistance in plants are frequently clustered in the genome. Genes for resistance (R genes) to diverse pathogens cloned from several species encode proteins that have motifs in common. These motifs indicate that R genes are part of signal-transduction systems. Most of these R genes encode a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) region. Sequences encoding putative solvent-exposed residues in this region are hypervariable and have elevated ratios of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions; this suggests that they have evolved to detect variation in pathogen-derived ligands. Generation of new resistance specificities previously had been thought to involve frequent unequal crossing-over and gene conversions. However, comparisons between resistance haplotypes reveal that orthologs are more similar than paralogs implying a low rate of sequence homogenization from unequal crossing-over and gene conversion. We propose a new model adapted and expanded from one proposed for the evolution of vertebrate major histocompatibility complex and immunoglobulin gene families. Our model emphasizes divergent selection acting on arrays of solvent-exposed residues in the LRR resulting in evolution of individual R genes within a haplotype. Intergenic unequal crossing-over and gene conversions are important but are not the primary mechanisms generating variation.

The isolation and mapping of disease resistance gene analogs in maize

Many of the plant disease resistance genes that have been isolated encode proteins with a putative nucleotide binding site and leucine-rich repeats (NBS-LRR resistance genes). Oligonucleotide primers based on conserved motifs in and around the NBS of known NBS-LRR resistance proteins were used to amplify sequences from maize genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Eleven classes of non-cross-hybridizing sequences were obtained that had predicted products with high levels of amino acid identity to NBS-LRR resistance proteins. These maize resistance gene analogs (RGAs) and one RGA clone obtained previously from wheat were used as probes to map 20 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) loci in maize. Some RFLPs were shown to map to genomic regions containing virus and fungus resistance genes. Perfect cosegregation was observed between RGA loci and the rust resistance loci rp1 and rp3. The RGA probe associated with rp1 also detected deletion events in several rp1 mutants. These data strongly suggest that some of the RGA clones may hybridize to resistance genes.

Structure and function of proteins controlling strain-specific pathogen resistance in plants

Recently recognised structural and amino acid sequence similarities between plant disease resistance (R) proteins and animal proteins such as Apaf-1 and CED-4 are providing conceptual models for resistance protein function. Data from extensive DNA sequencing of resistance gene families are indicating that the leucine-rich repeat motif is an important determinant of gene-for-gene specificity and that intergenic DNA sequence exchange is a major contributor to R gene diversity.

Root-knot nematode resistance genes in tomato and their potential for future use

The gene Mi, which confers resistance to several species of root-knot nematode, is present in many modern tomato cultivars. Recent cloning of this gene revealed that it encodes a member of the plant resistance protein family characterized by the presence of a putative nucleotide binding site and a leucine-rich repeat. Analysis of transgenic plants revealed the unexpected result that Mi also confers resistance to potato aphids. Although highly effective in many conditions, Mi fails to confer resistance at high soil temperature, and Mi-virulent nematode isolates have been identified in many areas of the world. These findings have stimulated efforts to identify new sources of root-knot nematode resistance. Resistance genes that differ from Mi in properties and genetic position have been identified in Lycopersicon peruvianum. These genes, as well as the cloned Mi gene, provide a resource for broadening the base of root-knot nematode resistance in tomato and other crops.