Unconventional secretion: an extracellular trap for export of fibroblast growth factor 2

Mechanisms of regulated unconventional protein secretion

Most eukaryotic proteins are secreted through the conventional endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi secretory pathway. However, cytoplasmic, nuclear and signal-peptide-containing proteins have been shown to reach the cell surface by non-conventional transport pathways. The mechanisms and molecular components of unconventional protein secretion are beginning to emerge, including a role for caspase 1 and for the peripheral Golgi protein GRASP, which could function as a plasma membrane tether for membrane compartments during specific stages of development.

The CXCL12gamma chemokine displays unprecedented structural and functional properties that make it a paradigm of chemoattractant proteins

The CXCL12γ chemokine arises by alternative splicing from Cxcl12, an essential gene during development. This protein binds CXCR4 and displays an exceptional degree of conservation (99%) in mammals. CXCL12γ is formed by a protein core shared by all CXCL12 isoforms, extended by a highly cationic carboxy-terminal (C-ter) domain that encompass four overlapped BBXB heparan sulfate (HS)-binding motifs. We hypothesize that this unusual domain could critically determine the biological properties of CXCL12γ through its interaction to, and regulation by extracellular glycosaminoglycans (GAG) and HS in particular. By both RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, we mapped the localization of CXCL12γ both in mouse and human tissues, where it showed discrete differential expression. As an unprecedented feature among chemokines, the secreted CXCL12γ strongly interacted with cell membrane GAG, thus remaining mostly adsorbed on the plasmatic membrane upon secretion. Affinity chromatography and surface plasmon resonance allowed us to determine for CXCL12γ one of the higher affinity for HS (K_d = 0.9 nM) ever reported for a protein. This property relies in the presence of four canonical HS-binding sites located at the C-ter domain but requires the collaboration of a HS-binding site located in the core of the protein. Interestingly, and despite reduced agonist potency on CXCR4, the sustained binding of CXCL12γ to HS enabled it to promote in vivo intraperitoneal leukocyte accumulation and angiogenesis in matrigel plugs with much higher efficiency than CXCL12α. In good agreement, mutant CXCL12γ chemokines selectively devoid of HS-binding capacity failed to promote in vivo significant cell recruitment. We conclude that CXCL12γ features unique structural and functional properties among chemokines which rely on the presence of a distinctive C-ter domain. The unsurpassed capacity to bind to HS on the extracellular matrix would make CXCL12γ the paradigm of haptotactic proteins, which regulate essential homeostatic functions by promoting directional migration and selective tissue homing of cells.

Rerouting of fibroblast growth factor 2 to the classical secretory pathway results in post-translational modifications that block binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans

FGF-2 is a proangiogenic growth factor secreted by unconventional means. It is unknown why FGF-2 takes an ER/Golgi-independent secretory route. We find that secretion of FGF-2 via the ER/Golgi system causes post-translational modifications that prevent binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), an interaction that is critically important for both FGF-2 storage and signal transduction. This loss of function is due to artificial O-glycosylation mainly resulting in the addition of glycosaminoglycan chains of the chrondroitin sulfate type. Our findings suggest that the unconventional mechanism of FGF-2 export is an ancient pathway of protein secretion that, in the course of evolution, has been kept due to the inability of the classical secretory pathway to export FGF-2 in a functional form.

Neurobin/TMPRSS11c, a novel type II transmembrane serine protease that cleaves fibroblast growth factor-2 in vitro

TTSPs [type II TMPRSSs (transmembrane serine proteases)] are a growing family of trypsin-like enzymes with, in some cases, restricted tissue distribution. To investigate the expression of TTSPs in the nervous system, we performed a PCR-based screening approach with P10 (postnatal day 10) mouse spinal cord mRNA. We detected the expression of five known TTSPs and identified a novel TTSP, which we designated neurobin. Neurobin consists of 431 amino acids. In the extracellular part, neurobin contains a single SEA (sea-urchin sperm protein, enterokinase and agrin) domain and a C-terminal serine protease domain. RT-PCR (reverse transcription-PCR) analysis indicated the expression of neurobin in spinal cord and cerebellum. Histochemical analysis of brain sections revealed distinct staining of Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum. Transiently overexpressed neurobin was autocatalytically processed and inserted into the plasma membrane. Autocatalytic activation could be suppressed by mutating Ser(381) in the catalytic pocket to an alanine residue. The protease domain of neurobin, produced in Escherichia coli and refolded from inclusion bodies, cleaved chromogenic peptides with an arginine residue in position P(1). Serine protease inhibitors effectively suppressed the proteolytic activity of recombinant neurobin. Ca2+ or Na+ ions did not significantly modulate the catalytic activity of the protease. Recombinant neurobin processed 17-kDa FGF-2 (fibroblast growth factor-2) at several P(1) lysine and arginine positions to distinct fragments, in a heparin-inhibitable manner, but did not cleave FGF-7, laminin or fibronectin. These results indicate that neurobin is an authentic TTSP with trypsin-like activity and is able to process FGF-2 in vitro.

A direct role for phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate in unconventional secretion of fibroblast growth factor 2

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is a mitogen that is exported from cells by an endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi-independent secretory pathway. Recent findings have shown that FGF-2 export occurs by direct translocation from the cytoplasm across the plasma membrane into the extracellular space. Here, we report that FGF-2 contains a binding site for phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)], the principal phosphoinositide species associated with plasma membranes. Intriguingly, in the context of a lipid bilayer, the interaction between FGF-2 and PI(4,5)P(2) is shown to depend on a lipid background that resembles plasma membranes. We show that the interaction with PI(4,5)P(2) is critically important for FGF-2 secretion as experimental conditions reducing cellular levels of PI(4,5)P(2) resulted in a substantial drop in FGF-2 export efficiency. Likewise, we have identified FGF-2 variant forms deficient for binding to PI(4,5)P(2) that were found to be severely impaired with regard to export efficiency. These data show that a transient interaction with PI(4,5)P(2) associated with the inner leaflet of plasma membranes represents the initial step of the unconventional secretory pathway of FGF-2.

Unconventional secretion of fibroblast growth factor 2 and galectin-1 does not require shedding of plasma membrane-derived vesicles

Various molecular mechanisms of unconventional secretion of fibroblast growth factor 2 and galectin-1 have been proposed. A non-vesicular pathway that is based on direct translocation across the plasma membrane has been described. In other studies, however, release into the extracellular space of cell-derived vesicles was implicated in both FGF-2 and Gal-1 secretion. Such vesicles were proposed to originate either from plasma membrane shedding or by the release of exosomes. Employing an inhibitor of plasma membrane blebbing and based on a quantitative biochemical analysis of cell culture supernatants for vesicles potentially carrying FGF-2 or Gal-1, we demonstrate that both FGF-2 and Gal-1 are not exported by shedding of plasma membrane-derived vesicles.