Constant regulation of both the MPF amplification loop and the Greatwall-PP2A pathway is required for metaphase II arrest and correct entry into the first embryonic cell cycle

Switches and latches: a biochemical tug-of-war between the kinases and phosphatases that control mitosis

Activation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk1) cyclin B (CycB) complex (Cdk1:CycB) in mitosis brings about a remarkable extent of protein phosphorylation. Cdk1:CycB activation is switch-like, controlled by two auto-amplification loops--Cdk1:CycB activates its activating phosphatase, Cdc25, and inhibits its inhibiting kinase, Wee1. Recent experimental evidence suggests that parallel to Cdk1:CycB activation during mitosis, there is inhibition of its counteracting phosphatase activity. We argue that the downregulation of the phosphatase is not just a simple latch that suppresses futile cycles of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation during mitosis. Instead, we propose that phosphatase regulation creates coherent feed-forward loops and adds extra amplification loops to the Cdk1:CycB regulatory network, thus forming an integral part of the mitotic switch. These network motifs further strengthen the bistable characteristic of the mitotic switch, which is based on the antagonistic interaction of two groups of proteins: M-phase promoting factors (Cdk1:CycB, Cdc25, Greatwall and Endosulfine/Arpp19) and interphase promoting factors (Wee1, PP2A-B55 and a Greatwall counteracting phosphatase, probably PP1). The bistable character of the switch implies the existence of a CycB threshold for entry into mitosis. The end of G2 phase is determined by the point where CycB level crosses the CycB threshold for Cdk1 activation.

A dynamical model of oocyte maturation unveils precisely orchestrated meiotic decisions

Maturation of vertebrate oocytes into haploid gametes relies on two consecutive meioses without intervening DNA replication. The temporal sequence of cellular transitions driving eggs from G2 arrest to meiosis I (MI) and then to meiosis II (MII) is controlled by the interplay between cyclin-dependent and mitogen-activated protein kinases. In this paper, we propose a dynamical model of the molecular network that orchestrates maturation of Xenopus laevis oocytes. Our model reproduces the core features of maturation progression, including the characteristic non-monotonous time course of cyclin-Cdks, and unveils the network design principles underlying a precise sequence of meiotic decisions, as captured by bifurcation and sensitivity analyses. Firstly, a coherent and sharp meiotic resumption is triggered by the concerted action of positive feedback loops post-translationally activating cyclin-Cdks. Secondly, meiotic transition is driven by the dynamic antagonism between positive and negative feedback loops controlling cyclin turnover. Our findings reveal a highly modular network in which the coordination of distinct regulatory schemes ensures both reliable and flexible cell-cycle decisions.

In the life cycle of sexual organisms, a specialized cell division -meiosis- reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes or spores while fertilization or mating restores the original number. The essential feature that distinguishes meiosis from mitosis (the usual division) is the succession of two rounds of division following a single DNA replication, as well as the arrest at the second division in the case of oocyte maturation. The fact that meiosis and mitosis are similar but different raises several interesting questions: What is the meiosis-specific dynamics of cell-cycle regulators? Are there mechanisms which guarantee the occurence of two and only two rounds of division despite the presence of intrinsic and extrinsic noises ? The study of a model of the molecular network that underlies the meiotic maturation process in Xenopus oocytes provides unexpected answers to these questions. On the one hand, the modular organization of this network ensures separate controls of the first and second divisions. On the other hand, regulatory synergies ensure that these two stages are precisely and reliably sequenced during meiosis. We conclude that cells have evolved a sophisticated regulatory network to achieve a robust, albeit flexible, meiotic dynamics.

Protein phosphatase 2A controls the order and dynamics of cell-cycle transitions

Bistability of the Cdk1-Wee1-Cdc25 mitotic control network underlies the switch-like transitions between interphase and mitosis. Here, we show by mathematical modeling and experiments in Xenopus egg extracts that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), which can dephosphorylate Cdk1 substrates, is essential for this bistability. PP2A inhibition in early interphase abolishes the switch-like response of the system to Cdk1 activity, promoting mitotic onset even with very low levels of Cyclin, Cdk1, and Cdc25, while simultaneously inhibiting DNA replication. Furthermore, even if replication has already initiated, it cannot continue in mitosis. Exclusivity of S and M phases does not depend on bistability only, since partial PP2A inhibition prevents replication without inducing mitotic onset. In these conditions, interphase-level mitotic kinases inhibit Cyclin E-Cdk2 chromatin loading, blocking initiation complex formation. Therefore, by counteracting both Cdk1 activation and activity of mitotic kinases, PP2A ensures robust separation of S phase and mitosis and dynamic transitions between the two states.

Protein phosphatases and the regulation of mitosis

Dynamic control of protein phosphorylation is necessary for the regulation of many cellular processes, including mitosis and cytokinesis. Indeed, although the central role of protein kinases is widely appreciated and intensely studied, the importance of protein phosphatases is often overlooked. Recent studies, however, have highlighted the considerable role of protein phosphatases in both the spatial and temporal control of protein kinase activity, and the modulation of substrate phosphorylation. Here, we will focus on recent advances in our understanding of phosphatase structure, and the importance of phosphatase function in the control of mitotic spindle formation, chromosome architecture and cohesion, and cell division.

Boosting and suppressing mitotic phosphorylation

Reversible protein phosphorylation is an essential aspect of mitosis and forms the basis of nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome condensation and spindle assembly. Through global phosphoproteomic analysis, it has become clear that overall protein phosphorylation and phosphosite occupancy is most abundant during mitosis. At mitotic exit, this abundant phosphorylation must be reversed, and this process requires massive and rapid protein dephosphorylation. In addition to this global shift in protein phosphorylation, careful spatial control of protein (de)phosphorylation is equally important for spindle assembly, chromosome disjunction and chromosome alignment. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms that enforce the dramatic global shift in protein phosphorylation as well as the mechanisms that allow for highly localized substrate phosphorylation in mitosis.

Modeling abnormal early development with induced pluripotent stem cells from aneuploid syndromes

Many human diseases share a developmental origin that manifests during childhood or maturity. Aneuploid syndromes are caused by supernumerary or reduced number of chromosomes and represent an extreme example of developmental disease, as they have devastating consequences before and after birth. Investigating how alterations in gene dosage drive these conditions is relevant because it might help treat some clinical aspects. It may also provide explanations as to how quantitative differences in gene expression determine phenotypic diversity and disease susceptibility among natural populations. Here, we aimed to produce induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines that can be used to improve our understanding of aneuploid syndromes. We have generated iPSCs from monosomy X [Turner syndrome (TS)], trisomy 8 (Warkany syndrome 2), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) and partial trisomy 11;22 (Emanuel syndrome), using either skin fibroblasts from affected individuals or amniocytes from antenatal diagnostic tests. These cell lines stably maintain the karyotype of the donors and behave like embryonic stem cells in all tested assays. TS iPSCs were used for further studies including global gene expression analysis and tissue-specific directed differentiation. Multiple clones displayed lower levels of the pseudoautosomal genes ASMTL and PPP2R3B than the controls. Moreover, they could be transformed into neural-like, hepatocyte-like and heart-like cells, but displayed insufficient up-regulation of the pseudoautosomal placental gene CSF2RA during embryoid body formation. These data support that abnormal organogenesis and early lethality in TS are not caused by a tissue-specific differentiation blockade, but rather involves other abnormalities including impaired placentation.

Proteomics reveals a switch in CDK1-associated proteins upon M-phase exit during the Xenopus laevis oocyte to embryo transition

Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) is a major M-phase kinase which requires the binding to a regulatory protein, Cyclin B, to be active. CDK1/Cyclin B complex is called M-phase promoting factor (MPF) for its key role in controlling both meiotic and mitotic M-phase of the cell cycle. CDK1 inactivation is necessary for oocyte activation and initiation of embryo development. This complex process requires both Cyclin B polyubiquitination and proteosomal degradation via the ubiquitin-conjugation pathway, followed by the dephosphorylation of the monomeric CDK1 on Thr161. Previous proteomic analyses revealed a number of CDK1-associated proteins in human HeLa cells. It is, however, unknown whether specific partners are involved in CDK1 inactivation upon M-phase exit. To better understand CDK1 regulation during MII-arrest and oocyte activation, we immunoprecipitated (IPed) CDK1 together with its associated proteins from M-phase-arrested and M-phase-exiting Xenopus laevis oocytes. A mass spectrometry (MS) analysis revealed a number of new putative CDK1 partners. Most importantly, the composition of the CDK1-associated complex changed rapidly during M-phase exit. Additionally, an analysis of CDK1 complexes precipitated with beads covered with p9 protein, a fission yeast suc1 homologue well known for its high affinity for CDKs, was performed to identify the most abundant proteins associated with CDK1. The screen was auto-validated by identification of: (i) two forms of CDK1: Cdc2A and B, (ii) a set of Cyclins B with clearly diminishing number of peptides identified upon M-phase exit, (iii) a number of known CDK1 substrates (e.g. peroxiredoxine) and partners (e.g. HSPA8, a member of the HSP70 family) both in IP and in p9 precipitated pellets. In IP samples we also identified chaperones, which can modulate CDK1 three-dimensional structure, as well as calcineurin, a protein necessary for successful oocyte activation. These results shed a new light on CDK1 regulation via a dynamic change in the composition of the protein complex upon M-phase exit and the oocyte to embryo transition.

A critical balance between Cyclin B synthesis and Myt1 activity controls meiosis entry in Xenopus oocytes

In fully grown oocytes, meiosis is arrested at first prophase until species-specific initiation signals trigger maturation. Meiotic resumption universally involves early activation of M phase-promoting factor (Cdc2 kinase-Cyclin B complex, MPF) by dephosphorylation of the inhibitory Thr14/Tyr15 sites of Cdc2. However, underlying mechanisms vary. In Xenopus oocytes, deciphering the intervening chain of events has been hampered by a sensitive amplification loop involving Cdc2-Cyclin B, the inhibitory kinase Myt1 and the activating phosphatase Cdc25. In this study we provide evidence that the critical event in meiotic resumption is a change in the balance between inhibitory Myt1 activity and Cyclin B neosynthesis. First, we show that in fully grown oocytes Myt1 is essential for maintaining prophase I arrest. Second, we demonstrate that, upon upregulation of Cyclin B synthesis in response to progesterone, rapid inactivating phosphorylation of Myt1 occurs, mediated by Cdc2 and without any significant contribution of Mos/MAPK or Plx1. We propose a model in which the appearance of active MPF complexes following increased Cyclin B synthesis causes Myt1 inhibition, upstream of the MPF/Cdc25 amplification loop.

Suppression of scant identifies Endos as a substrate of greatwall kinase and a negative regulator of protein phosphatase 2A in mitosis

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) plays a major role in dephosphorylating the targets of the major mitotic kinase Cdk1 at mitotic exit, yet how it is regulated in mitotic progression is poorly understood. Here we show that mutations in either the catalytic or regulatory twins/B55 subunit of PP2A act as enhancers of gwl^Scant, a gain-of-function allele of the Greatwall kinase gene that leads to embryonic lethality in Drosophila when the maternal dosage of the mitotic kinase Polo is reduced. We also show that heterozygous mutant endos alleles suppress heterozygous gwl^Scant; many more embryos survive. Furthermore, heterozygous PP2A mutations make females heterozygous for the strong mutation polo¹¹ partially sterile, even in the absence of gwl^Scant. Heterozygosity for an endos mutation suppresses this PP2A/polo¹¹ sterility. Homozygous mutation or knockdown of endos leads to phenotypes suggestive of defects in maintaining the mitotic state. In accord with the genetic interactions shown by the gwl^Scant dominant mutant, the mitotic defects of Endos knockdown in cultured cells can be suppressed by knockdown of either the catalytic or the Twins/B55 regulatory subunits of PP2A but not by the other three regulatory B subunits of Drosophila PP2A. Greatwall phosphorylates Endos at a single site, Ser68, and this is essential for Endos function. Together these interactions suggest that Greatwall and Endos act to promote the inactivation of PP2A-Twins/B55 in Drosophila. We discuss the involvement of Polo kinase in such a regulatory loop.

Progression through mitosis requires the addition of phosphate groups onto specific proteins by enzymes collectively known as mitotic protein kinases. At the end of mitosis, these phosphates are removed by protein phosphatases. Whereas we know quite a lot about the mitotic protein kinases, we know much less about the phosphatases. Here we used the fruit fly Drosophila as a model organism to identify a pathway regulating a phosphatase required for mitotic exit. Using mutations in genes for this pathway in the fly and by depleting levels of corresponding proteins from cultured cells, we established the relationships between the gene products. This has revealed that Greatwall mitotic kinase works in concert with the protein Endos to antagonise Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Specifically, Greatwall and Endos affect the activity of a particular form of PP2A that is associated with only one of the four different regulatory subunits found in Drosophila. We found that phosphorylation of Endos at a defined position by Greatwall kinase is required for its function. Together this provides genetic evidence that the Greatwall mitotic kinase inhibits the PP2A phosphatase required for mitotic exit thus complementing biochemical experiments using frog eggs and indicating the universality of this mechanism.

Phosphatases: providing safe passage through mitotic exit

The mitosis-to-interphase transition involves dramatic cellular reorganization from a state that supports chromosome segregation to a state that complies with all functions of an interphase cell. This process, termed mitotic exit, depends on the removal of mitotic phosphorylations from a broad range of substrates. Mitotic exit regulation involves inactivation of mitotic kinases and activation of counteracting protein phosphatases. The key mitotic exit phosphatase in budding yeast, Cdc14, is now well understood. By contrast, in animal cells, it is now emerging that mitotic exit relies on distinct regulatory networks, including the protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A.

Greatwall and Polo-like kinase 1 coordinate to promote checkpoint recovery

Checkpoint recovery upon completion of DNA repair allows the cell to return to normal cell cycle progression and is thus a crucial process that determines cell fate after DNA damage. We previously studied this process in Xenopus egg extracts and established Greatwall (Gwl) as an important regulator. Here we show that preactivated Gwl kinase can promote checkpoint recovery independently of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) or Plx1 (Xenopus polo-like kinase 1), whereas depletion of Gwl from extracts exhibits no synergy with that of Plx1 in delaying checkpoint recovery, suggesting a distinct but related relationship between Gwl and Plx1. In further revealing their functional relationship, we found mutual dependence for activation of Gwl and Plx1 during checkpoint recovery, as well as their direct association. We characterized the protein association in detail and recapitulated it in vitro with purified proteins, which suggests direct interaction. Interestingly, Gwl interaction with Plx1 and its phosphorylation by Plx1 both increase at the stage of checkpoint recovery. More importantly, Plx1-mediated phosphorylation renders Gwl more efficient in promoting checkpoint recovery, suggesting a functional involvement of such regulation in the recovery process. Finally, we report an indirect regulatory mechanism involving Aurora A that may account for Gwl-dependent regulation of Plx1 during checkpoint recovery. Our results thus reveal novel mechanisms underlying the involvement of Gwl in checkpoint recovery, in particular, its functional relationship with Plx1, a well characterized regulator of checkpoint recovery. Coordinated interplays between Plx1 and Gwl are required for reactivation of these kinases from the G(2)/M DNA damage checkpoint and efficient checkpoint recovery.

Characterization of the mechanisms controlling Greatwall activity

Here we investigate the mechanisms regulating Greatwall (Gwl), a serine/threonine kinase essential for promoting the correct timing of mitosis. We identify Gwl as a unique AGC kinase that, unlike most AGC members, appears to be devoid of a hydrophobic motif despite the presence of a functional hydrophobic pocket. Our results suggest that Gwl activation could be mediated by the binding of its hydrophobic pocket to the hydrophobic motif of another AGC kinase. Our molecular modeling and mutagenic analysis also indicate that Gwl displays a conserved tail/linker site whose phosphorylation mediates kinase activation by promoting the interaction of this phosphorylated residue with two lysines at the N terminus. This interaction could stabilize the αC-helix and maintain kinase activity. Finally, the different phosphorylation sites on Gwl are identified, and the role of each one in the regulation of Gwl kinase activity is determined. Our data suggest that only the phosphorylation of the tail/linker site, located outside the putative T loop, appears to be essential for Gwl activation. In summary, our results identify Gwl as a member of the AGC family of kinases that appears to be regulated by unique mechanisms and that differs from the other members of this family.

Induction of cell cycle arrest and DNA damage by the HDAC inhibitor panobinostat (LBH589) and the lipid peroxidation end product 4-hydroxynonenal in prostate cancer cells

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) are promising antineoplastic agents for the treatment of cancer. Here we report that the lipid peroxidation end product 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) significantly potentiates the anti-tumor effects of the HDAC inhibitor panobinostat (LBH589) in the PC3 prostate cancer cell model. Panobinostat and HNE inhibited proliferation of PC3 cells and the combination of the two agents resulted in a significant combined effect. Cell cycle analysis revealed that both single agents and, to a greater extent, their combined treatment induced G2/M arrest, but cell death occurred in the combined treatment only. Furthermore, HNE and, to a greater extent, the combined treatment induced dephosphorylation of Cdc2 leading to progression into mitosis as confirmed by α-tubulin/DAPI staining and phospho-histone H3 (Ser10) analysis. To evaluate possible induction of DNA damage we utilized the marker phosphorylated histone H2A.X. Results showed that the combination of panobinostat and HNE induced significant DNA damage concomitant with the mitotic arrest. Then, by using androgen receptor (AR)-expressing PC3 cells we observed that the responsiveness to HNE and panobinostat was independent of the expression of functional AR. Taken together, our data suggest that HNE potentiates the antitumoral effect of the HDACI panobinostat in prostate cancer cells.

The substrate of Greatwall kinase, Arpp19, controls mitosis by inhibiting protein phosphatase 2A

Initiation and maintenance of mitosis require the activation of protein kinase cyclin B-Cdc2 and the inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), which, respectively, phosphorylate and dephosphorylate mitotic substrates. The protein kinase Greatwall (Gwl) is required to maintain mitosis through PP2A inhibition. We describe how Gwl activation results in PP2A inhibition. We identified cyclic adenosine monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein 19 (Arpp19) and α-Endosulfine as two substrates of Gwl that, when phosphorylated by this kinase, associate with and inhibit PP2A, thus promoting mitotic entry. Conversely, in the absence of Gwl activity, Arpp19 and α-Endosulfine are dephosphorylated and lose their capacity to bind and inhibit PP2A. Although both proteins can inhibit PP2A, endogenous Arpp19, but not α-Endosulfine, is responsible for PP2A inhibition at mitotic entry in Xenopus egg extracts.

Greatwall kinase, ARPP-19 and protein phosphatase 2A: shifting the mitosis paradigm

Control of entry into mitosis has long been seen in terms of an explosive activation of cyclin-dependent kinase 1, the mitotic driver ensuring the phosphorylation of hundreds of proteins required for cell division. However, if these phosphorylations are maintained during M-phase, they must be removed when cells exit mitosis. It has been surmised that an "antimitotic" phosphatase must be inhibited to allow mitosis entry and activated for returning to interphase. This chapter discusses a series of recent works conducted on Xenopus egg extracts that provide the answers regarding the identity and the regulation of such a phosphatase. PP2A-B55δ is the major phosphatase controlling exit from mitosis; it is negatively regulated by the kinase Greatwall that phosphorylates the small protein ARPP-19 and converts it into a potent PP2A inhibitor. These findings provide a new element of paramount importance in the control of mitosis.

A novel role for greatwall kinase in recovery from DNA damage

Activation of the DNA damage response (DDR) is critical for genomic integrity and tumor suppression. The occurrence of DNA damage quickly evokes the DDR through ATM/ATR-dependent signal transduction, which promotes DNA repair and activates the checkpoint to halt cell cycle progression. The "turn off" process of the DDR upon satisfaction of DNA repair, also known as "checkpoint recovery", involves deactivation of DDR elements, but the mechanism is poorly understood. Greatwall kinase (Gwl) has been identified as a key element in the G(2)/M transition and helps maintain M phase through inhibition of PP 2A/B55δ, the principal phosphatase for Cdk-phosphorylated substrates. Here we show that Gwl also promotes recovery from DNA damage and is itself directly inhibited by the DNA damage response (DDR). In Xenopus egg extracts, immunodepletion of Gwl increased the DDR to damaged DNA, whereas addition of wild type, but not kinase dead Gwl, inhibited the DDR. The removal of damaged DNA from egg extracts leads to recovery from checkpoint arrest and entry into mitosis, a process impaired by Gwl depletion and enhanced by Gwl overexpression. Moreover, activation of Cdk1 after the removal of damaged DNA is regulated by Gwl. Collectively, these results defines Gwl as a new regulator of the DDR, which plays an important role in recovery from DNA damage.

Antagonistic roles of PP2A-Pab1 and Etd1 in the control of cytokinesis in fission yeast

In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Etd1 is a positive regulator of the septation initiation network (SIN), a conserved GTPase-regulated kinase cascade that triggers cytokinesis. Here we show that a mutation in the pab1 gene, which encodes the B-regulatory subunit of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), suppresses mutations in the etd1 gene. Etd1 is required for the function of the GTPase Spg1, a key regulator of SIN signaling. Interestingly, the loss of Pab1 function restored the activity of Spg1 in Etd1-deficient cells. This result suggests that PP2A-Pab1-mediated dephosphorylation inhibits Spg1, thus antagonizing Etd1 function. The loss of pab1 function also rescues the lethality of mutants of other genes in the SIN cascade such as mob1, sid1, and cdc11. Two-hybrid assays indicate that Pab1 physically interacts with Mob1, Sid1, Sid2, and Cdc11, suggesting that the phosphatase 2A B-subunit is a component of the SIN complex. Together, our results indicate that PP2A-Pab1 plays a novel role in cytokinesis, regulating SIN activity at different levels. Pab1 is also required to activate polarized cell growth. Thus, PP2A-Pab1 may be involved in coordinating polar growth and cytokinesis.