Novel coumarins and benzocoumarins acting as isoform-selective inhibitors against the tumor-associated carbonic anhydrase IX

Cloning, characterization and anion inhibition studies of a γ-carbonic anhydrase from the Antarctic bacterium Colwellia psychrerythraea

We have cloned, purified and characterized the γ-carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) present in the genome of the Antarctic bacterium Colwellia psychrerythraea, which is an obligate psychrophile. The enzyme shows a significant catalytic activity for the physiologic reaction of CO2 hydration to bicarbonate and protons, with the following kinetic parameters: kcat of 6.0×10(5)s(-1) and a kcat/Km of 4.7×10(6)M(-1)×s(-1). This activity was inhibited by the sulfonamide CA inhibitor (CAI) acetazolamide, with a KI of 502nM. A range of anions was also investigated for their inhibitory action against the new enzyme CpsCA. Perchlorate, tetrafluoroborate, fluoride and bromide were not inhibitory, whereas cyanate, thiocyanate, cyanide, hydrogensulfide, carbonate and bicarbonate showed KIs in the range of 1.4-4.4mM. Diethyldithiocarbamate was a better inhibitor (KI of 0.58mM) whereas sulfamide, sulfamate, phenylboronic acid and phenylarsonic acid were the most effective inhibitors detected, with KIs ranging between 8 and 38μM. The present study may shed some more light regarding the role that γ-CAs play in the life cycle of psychrophilic bacteria as the Antarctic one investigated here.

The anticonvulsant sulfamide JNJ-26990990 and its S,S-dioxide analog strongly inhibit carbonic anhydrases: solution and X-ray crystallographic studies

Inhibition and X-ray crystallographic data for the binding of JNJ-26990990 and its S,S-dioxide analog to hCAs have been reported.

Benzenesulfonamides incorporating bulky aromatic/heterocyclic tails with potent carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity

Three series of sulfonamides incorporating long, bulky tails were obtained by applying synthetic strategies in which substituted anthranilic acids, quinazolines and aromatic sulfonamides have been used as starting materials. They incorporate long, bulky diamide-, 4-oxoquinazoline-3-yl- or quinazoline-4-yl moieties in their molecules, and were investigated for the inhibition of four physiologically relevant carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms, the cytosolic human (h) hCA I and II, as well as the transmembrane hCA IX and XII. Most of the new sulfonamides showed excellent inhibitory effects against the four isoforms, with KIs of 7.6-322nM against hCA I, of 0.06-85.4nM against hCA II; of 6.7-152nM against hCA IX and of 0.49-237nM against hCA XII; respectively. However no relevant isoform-selective behavior has been observed for any of them, although hCA II and XII, isoforms involved in glaucoma-genesis were the most inhibited ones. The structure-activity relationship for inhibiting the four CAs with these derivatives is discussed in detail.

Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase isoforms I, II, IX and XII with Schiff's bases incorporating iminoureido moieties

A series of new Schiff's bases was obtained from the sulfanilamide semicarbazone (4-aminosulfonylphenyl semicarbazide) and aromatic/heterocyclic aldehydes. The new compounds were designed to incorporate moieties known to induce effective inhibitory activity against carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms involved in crucial physiologic or pathologic processes such as the cytosolic CA I and II or the transmembrane, tumor-associated CA IX and XII: the compounds were medium potency - weak CA I inhibitors, highly effective, low nanomolar CA II inhibitors, but few of them inhibited effectively CA IX and XII. This may probably due to the long spacer between the sulfamoylphenyl and imine fragments of the molecules, which probably induces a highly flexible conformation of the inhibitor bound to the active site of the enzyme, with destabilizing effects for the adduct. The detailed structure activity relationship for this class of inhibitors is discussed.

How many carbonic anhydrase inhibition mechanisms exist?

Six genetic families of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) were described to date. Inhibition of CAs has pharmacologic applications in the field of antiglaucoma, anticonvulsant, anticancer, and anti-infective agents. New classes of CA inhibitors (CAIs) were described in the last decade with enzyme inhibition mechanisms differing considerably from the classical inhibitors of the sulfonamide or anion type. Five different CA inhibition mechanisms are known: (i) the zinc binders coordinate to the catalytically crucial Zn(II) ion from the enzyme active site, with the metal in tetrahedral or trigonal bipyramidal geometries. Sulfonamides and their isosters, most anions, dithiocarbamates and their isosters, carboxylates, and hydroxamates bind in this way; (ii) inhibitors that anchor to the zinc-coordinated water molecule/hydroxide ion (phenols, carboxylates, polyamines, 2-thioxocoumarins, sulfocoumarins); (iii) inhibitors which occlude the entrance to the active site cavity (coumarins and their isosters), this binding site coinciding with that where CA activators bind; (iv) compounds which bind out of the active site cavity (a carboxylic acid derivative was seen to inhibit CA in this manner), and (v) compounds for which the inhibition mechanism is not known, among which the secondary/tertiary sulfonamides as well as imatinib/nilotinib are the most investigated examples. As CAIs are used clinically in many pathologies, with a sulfonamide inhibitor (SLC-0111) in Phase I clinical trials for the management of metastatic solid tumors, this review updates the recent findings in the field which may be useful for a structure-based drug design approach of more selective/potent modulators of the activity of these enzymes.

Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase isoforms I, II, IV, VII and XII with carboxylates and sulfonamides incorporating phthalimide/phthalic anhydride scaffolds

We report a panel of carboxylates and sulfonamides incorporating phthalic anhydride and phthalimide moieties in their structure and their interaction with the metalloenzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1). They were synthesized from substituted anthranilic acids and trimellitic anhydride chloride, followed by reaction with primary amines and were tested for the inhibition of five physiologically relevant CA isoforms, the human (h) hCA I, II, IV, VII and XII, some of which are involved in serious pathologies (CA II, IV and XII in glaucoma; CA VII in epilepsy; CA XII in some solid tumors). The carboxylic acids were generally poor inhibitors of isoforms hCA I, II and IV but were highly effective, low nanomolar inhibitors of hCA VII and XII. The sulfonamides inhibited all isoforms significantly, and some of them were sub-nanomolar hCA VII inhibitors, although their isoform selectivity was lower compared to the carboxylates. This study proves that carboxylic acids incorporating a phthalic anhydride/phthalimide based scaffold may lead to isoform-selective inhibitors by applying the tail approach, mostly used up until now for obtaining sulfonamide, sulfamide and sulfamate CA inhibitors.

Inhibition of mammalian carbonic anhydrase isoforms I-XIV with a series of phenolic acid esters

A series of phenolic acid esters incorporating caffeic, ferulic, and p-coumaric acid, and benzyl, m/p-hydroxyphenethyl- as well as p-hydroxy-phenethoxy-phenethyl moieties were investigated for their inhibitory effects against the metalloenzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1). Many of the mammalian isozymes of human (h) or murine (m) origin, hCA I-hCA XII, mCA XIII and hCA XIV, were inhibited in the submicromolar range by these derivatives (with KIs of 0.31-1.03 μM against hCA VA, VB, VI, VII, IX and XIV). The off-target, highly abundant isoforms hCA I and II, as well as hCA III, IV and XII were poorly inhibited by many of these esters, although the original phenolic acids were micromolar inhibitors. These phenols, like others investigated earlier, possess a CA inhibition mechanism distinct of the sulfonamides/sulfamates, clinically used drugs for the treatment of a multitude of pathologies, but with severe side effects due to hCA I/II inhibition. Unlike the sulfonamides, which bind to the catalytic zinc ion, phenols are anchored at the Zn(II)-coordinated water molecule, binding more externally within the active site cavity, and making contacts with amino acid residues at the entrance of the active site. As this is the region with the highest variability between the many CA isozymes found in mammals, this class of compounds shows isoform-selective inhibitory profiles, which may be exploited for obtaining pharmacological agents with less side effects compared to other classes of inhibitors.

Anion inhibition studies of the dandruff-producing fungus Malassezia globosa β-carbonic anhydrase MgCA

The genome of the fungal parasite Malassezia globosa, the causative agent of dandruff, contains a single gene annotated as encoding a carbonic anhydrase (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) belonging to the β-class (MgCA). In an earlier work (J. Med. Chem. 2012, 55, 3513) we have validated this enzyme as an anti-dandruff drug target, reporting that sulfonamide inhibitors show in vitro and in vivo effects, in an animal model of Malassezia infection. However, few classes of compounds apart the sulfonamides, were investigated for their activity against MgCA. Here we present an anion inhibition study of this enzyme, reporting that metal complexing anions such as cyanate, thiocyanate, cyanide, azide are weak MgCA inhibitors (KIs ranging between 6.81 and 45.2 mM) whereas bicarbonate (KI of 0.59 mM) and diethyldithiocarbamate (KI of 0.30 mM) together with sulfamide, sulfamate, phenylboronic acid and phenylarsonic acid were the most effective inhibitors detected so far, with KIs ranging between 83 and 94 μM. This study may help a better understanding of the inhibition profile of this enzyme and may offer the possibility to design new such modulators of activity belonging to different chemical classes.

7-Amino-3,4-dihydro-1H-quinolin-2-one, a compound similar to the substituted coumarins, inhibits α-carbonic anhydrases without hydrolysis of the lactam ring

7-Amino-3,4-dihydro-1H-quinolin-2-one, a compound structurally similar to coumarins, recently discovered class of inhibitors of the α-carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) was investigated for its interaction with all human (h) CA isoforms, hCA I-XIV. The compound was not an inhibitor of the cytosolic, widespread isoform hCA II (K(I) > 10 µM), was a weak inhibitor of hCA I, III, IV, VA, VI and XIII (K(I)s in the range of 0.90-9.5 µM) but effectively inhibited the cytosolic isoform hCA VII (K(I) of 480 nM) as well as the transmembrane isoforms hCA IX, XII and XIV (K(I)s in the range of 16.1-510 nM). Against many CA isoforms this lactam was a better inhibitor compared to the structurally similar 4-methyl-7-aminocoumarin, but unlike this compound, the lactam ring was not hydrolyzed and the inhibition was due to the intact bicyclic amino-quinolinone scaffold. Bicyclic lactams strucurally related to coumarins are thus a new class of CA inhibitors possessing however a distinct inhibition mechanism compared to the coumarins which undergo a hydrolysis of their lactone ring for generating the enzyme inhibitory species.

Dithiocarbamates with potent inhibitory activity against the Saccharomyces cerevisiae β-carbonic anhydrase

Dithiocarbamates (DTCs) prepared from primary or secondary amines, which incorporated amino/hydroxyl-alkyl, mono-/bicyclic aliphatic/heterocyclic rings based on the quinuclidine, piperidine, hydroxy-/carboxy-/amino-substituted piperidine, morpholine and piperazine scaffolds, were investigated for the inhibition of α- and β-carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) of pharmacologic relevance, such as the human (h) isoform hCA I and II, as well as the Saccharomyces cerevisiae β-CA, scCA. The yeast and its β-CA were shown earlier to be useful models of pathogenic fungal infections. The DTCs investigated here were medium potency hCA I inhibitors (K(I)s of 66.5-910 nM), were more effective as hCA II inhibitors (K(I)s of 8.9-107 nM) and some of them showed excellent, low nanomolar activity against the yeast enzyme, with inhibition constants ranging between 6.4 and 259 nM. The detailed structure activity relationship for inhibition of the yeast and human enzymes is discussed. Several of the investigated DTCs showed excellent selectivity ratios for inhibiting the yeast over the human cytosolic CA isoforms.

The impact of hydroquinone on acetylcholine esterase and certain human carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes (hCA I, II, IX, and XII)

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are widespread and the most studied members of a great family of metalloenzymes in higher vertebrates including humans. CAs were investigated for their inhibition of all of the catalytically active mammalian isozymes of the Zn(2+)-containing CA, (CA, EC 4.2.1.1). On the other hand, acetylcholinesterase (AChE. EC 3.1.1.7), a serine protease, is responsible for ACh hydrolysis and plays a fundamental role in impulse transmission by terminating the action of the neurotransmitter ACh at the cholinergic synapses and neuromuscular junction. In the present study, the inhibition effect of the hydroquinone (benzene-1,4-diol) on AChE activity was evaluated and effectively inhibited AChE with Ki of 1.22 nM. Also, hydroquinone strongly inhibited some human cytosolic CA isoenzymes (hCA I and II) and tumour-associated transmembrane isoforms (hCA IX, and XII), with Kis in the range between micromolar (415.81 μM) and nanomolar (706.79 nM). The best inhibition was observed in cytosolic CA II.

Exploring carbonic anhydrase inhibition with multimeric coumarins displayed on a fullerene scaffold

This study reports the first synthesis of multimeric suicide inhibitors of carbonic anhydrases.

Discovery and characterization of novel selective inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase IX

Human carbonic anhydrase IX (CA IX) is highly expressed in tumor tissues, and its selective inhibition provides a potential target for the treatment of numerous cancers. Development of potent, highly selective inhibitors against this target remains an unmet need in anticancer therapeutics. A series of fluorinated benzenesulfonamides with substituents on the benzene ring was designed and synthesized. Several of these exhibited a highly potent and selective inhibition profile against CA IX. Three fluorine atoms significantly increased the affinity by withdrawing electrons and lowering the pKa of the benzenesulfonamide group. The bulky ortho substituents, such as cyclooctyl or even cyclododecyl groups, fit into the hydrophobic pocket in the active site of CA IX but not CA II, as shown by the compound's co-crystal structure with chimeric CA IX. The strongest inhibitor of recombinant human CA IX's catalytic domain in human cells achieved an affinity of 50 pM. However, the high affinity diminished the selectivity. The most selective compound for CA IX exhibited 10 nM affinity. The compound that showed the best balance between affinity and selectivity bound with 1 nM affinity. The inhibitors described in this work provide the basis for novel anticancer therapeutics targeting CA IX.

A new class of quinazoline-sulfonamides acting as efficient inhibitors against the α-carbonic anhydrase from Trypanosoma cruzi

The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is the agent responsible for trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) in humans and other animals. It has been recently reported that this pathogen encodes for an α-class carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1), denominated TcCA, which was shown to be crucial for its life cycle. Inhibition studies of a class of 4-oxoquinazoline containing a benzensulfonamide moiety and their 4-thioxo bioisosteres against the protozoan enzyme TcCA are described here. Most of 4-oxoquinazoline sulfonamides showed nanomolar TcCA inhibition activity with K(I)s in the same order of magnitude of acetazolamide (AAZ), whereas their thioxo bioisosters showed moderate anti-Trypanosoma CA potency with K(I)s in the micromolar range. The discovery of compounds incorporating a 4-oxoquinazoline ring as a low-nanomolar TcCA inhibitor is quite promising and it may be useful for developing anti-Trypanosoma agents with a novel mechanism of action compared to the clinically used drugs (such as benznidazole, nifurtimox) for which significant resistance and serious adverse effects due to their high-toxicity appeared.

Ferrier sulfamidoglycosylation of glycals catalyzed by nitrosonium tetrafluoroborate: towards new carbonic anhydrase glycoinhibitors

Ferrier sulfamidoglycosylation of glycals catalyzed by nitrosonium tetrafluoroborate allowed the preparation of hydroxysulfamide glycosides in good yields with a good α stereoselectivity. A variety of mono-saccharide derivatives was synthesized using this new methodology leading to selective and powerful glycoinhibitors of the tumor associated carbonic anhydrases (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms CA IX and CA XII.