101
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Waters CA, Strande NT, Wyatt DW, Pryor JM, Ramsden DA. Nonhomologous end joining: a good solution for bad ends. DNA Repair (Amst) 2014; 17:39-51. [PMID: 24630899 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2014.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Double strand breaks pose unique problems for DNA repair, especially when broken ends possess complex structures that interfere with standard DNA transactions. Nonhomologous end joining can use multiple strategies to solve these problems. It further uses sophisticated means to ensure the strategy chosen provides the ideal balance of flexibility and accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal A Waters
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Natasha T Strande
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - David W Wyatt
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - John M Pryor
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Dale A Ramsden
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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102
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Non-homologous end joining often uses microhomology: implications for alternative end joining. DNA Repair (Amst) 2014; 17:74-80. [PMID: 24613510 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Revised: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Artemis and PALF (also called APLF) appear to be among the primary nucleases involved in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and responsible for most nucleolytic end processing in NHEJ. About 60% of NHEJ events show an alignment of the DNA ends that use 1 or 2bp of microhomology (MH) between the two DNA termini. Thus, MH is a common feature of NHEJ. For most naturally occurring human chromosomal deletions (e.g., after oxidative damage or radiation) and translocations, such as those seen in human neoplasms and as well as inherited chromosomal structural variations, MH usage occurs at a frequency that is typical of NHEJ, and does not suggest major involvement of alternative pathways that require more extensive MH. Though we mainly focus on human NHEJ at double-strand breaks, comparison on these points to other eukaryotes, primarily S. cerevisiae, is informative.
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103
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Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in regulation of chromatin structure and the DNA damage response. Chromosoma 2013; 123:79-90. [PMID: 24162931 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-013-0442-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) is a post-translational modification of proteins and is synthesised by PAR polymerases (PARPs), which have long been associated with the coordination of the cellular response to DNA damage, amongst other processes. Binding of some PARPs such as PARP1 to broken DNA induces a substantial wave of PARylation, which results in significant re-structuring of the chromatin microenvironment through modification of chromatin-associated proteins and recruitment of chromatin-modifying proteins. Similarly, other DNA damage response proteins are recruited to the damaged sites via PAR-specific binding modules, and in this way, PAR mediates not only local chromatin architecture but also DNA repair. Here, we discuss the expanding role of PAR in the DNA damage response, with particular focus on chromatin regulation.
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104
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Ohsawa R, Seol JH, Tyler JK. At the intersection of non-coding transcription, DNA repair, chromatin structure, and cellular senescence. Front Genet 2013; 4:136. [PMID: 23967007 PMCID: PMC3744812 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2013.00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
It is well accepted that non-coding RNAs play a critical role in regulating gene expression. Recent paradigm-setting studies are now revealing that non-coding RNAs, other than microRNAs, also play intriguing roles in the maintenance of chromatin structure, in the DNA damage response, and in adult human stem cell aging. In this review, we will discuss the complex inter-dependent relationships among non-coding RNA transcription, maintenance of genomic stability, chromatin structure, and adult stem cell senescence. DNA damage-induced non-coding RNAs transcribed in the vicinity of the DNA break regulate recruitment of the DNA damage machinery and DNA repair efficiency. We will discuss the correlation between non-coding RNAs and DNA damage repair efficiency and the potential role of changing chromatin structures around double-strand break sites. On the other hand, induction of non-coding RNA transcription from the repetitive Alu elements occurs during human stem cell aging and hinders efficient DNA repair causing entry into senescence. We will discuss how this fine balance between transcription and genomic instability may be regulated by the dramatic changes to chromatin structure that accompany cellular senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Ohsawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Houston, TX, USA
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105
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Barkauskaite E, Jankevicius G, Ladurner AG, Ahel I, Timinszky G. The recognition and removal of cellular poly(ADP-ribose) signals. FEBS J 2013; 280:3491-507. [PMID: 23711178 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Revised: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is involved in the regulation of a variety of cellular pathways, including, but not limited to, transcription, chromatin, DNA damage and other stress signalling. Similar to other tightly regulated post-translational modifications, poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation employs 'writers', 'readers' and 'erasers' to confer regulatory functions. The generation of poly(ADP-ribose) is catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase enzymes, which use NAD(+) as a cofactor to sequentially transfer ADP-ribose units generating long polymers, which, in turn, can affect protein function or serve as a recruitment platform for additional factors. Historically, research has focused on poly(ADP-ribose) generation pathways, with knowledge about PAR recognition and degradation lagging behind. Over recent years, several discoveries have significantly furthered our understanding of poly(ADP-ribose) recognition and, even more so, of poly(ADP-ribose) degradation. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the protein modules recognizing poly(ADP-ribose) and discuss the newest developments on the complete reversibility of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Barkauskaite
- Cancer Research UK, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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106
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Posavec M, Timinszky G, Buschbeck M. Macro domains as metabolite sensors on chromatin. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:1509-24. [PMID: 23455074 PMCID: PMC11113152 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1294-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
How metabolism and epigenetics are molecularly linked and regulate each other is poorly understood. In this review, we will discuss the role of direct metabolite-binding to chromatin components and modifiers as a possible regulatory mechanism. We will focus on globular macro domains, which are evolutionarily highly conserved protein folds that can recognize NAD(+)-derived metabolites. Macro domains are found in histone variants, histone modifiers, and a chromatin remodeler among other proteins. Here we summarize the macro domain-containing chromatin proteins and the enzymes that generate relevant metabolites. Focusing on the histone variant macroH2A, we further discuss possible implications of metabolite binding for chromatin function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanija Posavec
- Institute for Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer (IMPPC), Crta. Can Ruti, Cami de les Escoles, 08916 Badalona, Barcelona Spain
| | - Gyula Timinszky
- Butenandt Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Marcus Buschbeck
- Institute for Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer (IMPPC), Crta. Can Ruti, Cami de les Escoles, 08916 Badalona, Barcelona Spain
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107
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Touching base with PARPs: moonlighting in the repair of UV lesions and double-strand breaks. Trends Biochem Sci 2013; 38:321-30. [PMID: 23562323 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2012] [Revised: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Distinct types of DNA damage elicit signaling and repair pathways that counteract the adverse effect of DNA lesions to maintain genome stability. The negatively charged polymer poly(ADP-ribose), which is catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) enzymes, is a post-translational modification that serves as a chromatin-based platform for the recruitment of a variety of repair factors and chromatin-remodeling enzymes. Recent work implicates PARP3 in the efficient joining of DNA double-strand breaks during non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), whereas PARP1 modulates the repair of UV-induced DNA lesions. Here we discuss emerging roles of PARP enzymes in mechanistically distinct DNA repair pathways and highlight unresolved issues and questions for future research.
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108
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Fenton AL, Shirodkar P, Macrae CJ, Meng L, Koch CA. The PARP3- and ATM-dependent phosphorylation of APLF facilitates DNA double-strand break repair. Nucleic Acids Res 2013; 41:4080-92. [PMID: 23449221 PMCID: PMC3627606 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkt134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
APLF is a forkhead associated-containing protein with poly(ADP-ribose)-binding zinc finger (PBZ) domains, which undergoes ionizing radiation (IR)-induced and Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM)-dependent phosphorylation at serine-116 (Ser(116)). Here, we demonstrate that the phosphorylation of APLF at Ser(116) in human U2OS cells by ATM is dependent on poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 3 (PARP3) levels and the APLF PBZ domains. The interaction of APLF at sites of DNA damage was diminished by the single substitution of APLF Ser(116) to alanine, and the cellular depletion or chemical inhibition of ATM or PARP3 also altered the level of accumulation of APLF at sites of laser-induced DNA damage and impaired the accumulation of Ser(116)-phosphorylated APLF at IR-induced γH2AX foci in human cells. The data further suggest that ATM and PARP3 participate in a common signalling pathway to facilitate APLF-Ser(116) phosphorylation, which, in turn, appears to be required for efficient DNA double-strand break repair kinetics and cell survival following IR. Collectively, these findings provide a more detailed understanding of the molecular pathway that leads to the phosphorylation of APLF following DNA damage and suggest that Ser(116)-APLF phosphorylation facilitates APLF-dependent double-strand break repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Fenton
- Division of Signalling Biology, Ontario Cancer Institute (University Health Network), 610 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M9, Canada
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109
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Robert I, Karicheva O, Reina San Martin B, Schreiber V, Dantzer F. Functional aspects of PARylation in induced and programmed DNA repair processes: preserving genome integrity and modulating physiological events. Mol Aspects Med 2013; 34:1138-52. [PMID: 23454615 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To cope with the devastating insults constantly inflicted to their genome by intrinsic and extrinsic DNA damaging sources, cells have evolved a sophisticated network of interconnected DNA caretaking mechanisms that will detect, signal and repair the lesions. Among the underlying molecular mechanisms that regulate these events, PARylation catalyzed by Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), appears as one of the earliest post-translational modification at the site of the lesion that is known to elicit recruitment and regulation of many DNA damage response proteins. In this review we discuss how the complex PAR molecule operates in stress-induced DNA damage signaling and genome maintenance but also in various physiological settings initiated by developmentally programmed DNA breakage. To illustrate the latter, particular emphasis will be placed on the emerging contribution of PARPs to B cell receptor assembly and diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Robert
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), Institut National de Santé et de Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 7104, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
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110
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Detection and repair of ionizing radiation-induced DNA double strand breaks: new developments in nonhomologous end joining. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2013; 86:440-9. [PMID: 23433795 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2013.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
DNA damage can occur as a result of endogenous metabolic reactions and replication stress or from exogenous sources such as radiation therapy and chemotherapy. DNA double strand breaks are the most cytotoxic form of DNA damage, and defects in their repair can result in genome instability, a hallmark of cancer. The major pathway for the repair of ionizing radiation-induced DSBs in human cells is nonhomologous end joining. Here we review recent advances on the mechanism of nonhomologous end joining, as well as new findings on its component proteins and regulation.
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111
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Smeenk G, van Attikum H. The chromatin response to DNA breaks: leaving a mark on genome integrity. Annu Rev Biochem 2013; 82:55-80. [PMID: 23414304 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-061809-174504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Genetic, biochemical, and cellular studies have uncovered many of the molecular mechanisms underlying the signaling and repair of chromosomal DNA breaks. However, efficient repair of DNA damage is complicated in that genomic DNA is packaged, through histone and nonhistone proteins, into chromatin. The DNA repair machinery has to overcome this physical barrier to gain access to damaged DNA and repair DNA lesions. Posttranslational modifications of chromatin as well as ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors help to overcome this barrier and facilitate access to damaged DNA by altering chromatin structure at sites of DNA damage. Here we review and discuss our current knowledge of and recent advances in chromatin changes induced by chromosome breakage in mammalian cells and their implications for genome stability and human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godelieve Smeenk
- Department of Toxicogenetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC Leiden, The Netherlands
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112
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Altmeyer M, Lukas J. To spread or not to spread--chromatin modifications in response to DNA damage. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2013; 23:156-65. [PMID: 23312207 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Chromatin modifications in response to DNA damage are vital for genome integrity. Multiple proteins and pathways required to generate specialized chromatin domains around DNA lesions have been identified and the increasing amount of information calls for unifying concepts that would allow us to grasp the ever-increasing complexity. This review aims at contributing to this trend by focusing on feed-forward and feedback mechanisms, which in mammalian cells determine the extent of chromatin modifications after DNA damage. We highlight the emerging notion that the nodal points of these highly dynamic pathways operate in a rate-limiting mode, whose deregulation can disrupt physiological boundaries between damaged and undamaged chromatin, dictate repair pathway choice, and determine the fate of cells exposed to genotoxic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Altmeyer
- Chromosome Stability and Dynamics Unit, Department of Disease Biology, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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113
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Grundy GJ, Rulten SL, Zeng Z, Arribas-Bosacoma R, Iles N, Manley K, Oliver A, Caldecott KW. APLF promotes the assembly and activity of non-homologous end joining protein complexes. EMBO J 2013; 32:112-25. [PMID: 23178593 PMCID: PMC3545299 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2012.304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is critical for the maintenance of genetic integrity and DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair. NHEJ is regulated by a series of interactions between core components of the pathway, including Ku heterodimer, XLF/Cernunnos, and XRCC4/DNA Ligase 4 (Lig4). However, the mechanisms by which these proteins assemble into functional protein-DNA complexes are not fully understood. Here, we show that the von Willebrand (vWA) domain of Ku80 fulfills a critical role in this process by recruiting Aprataxin-and-PNK-Like Factor (APLF) into Ku-DNA complexes. APLF, in turn, functions as a scaffold protein and promotes the recruitment and/or retention of XRCC4-Lig4 and XLF, thereby assembling multi-protein Ku complexes capable of efficient DNA ligation in vitro and in cells. Disruption of the interactions between APLF and either Ku80 or XRCC4-Lig4 disrupts the assembly and activity of Ku complexes, and confers cellular hypersensitivity and reduced rates of chromosomal DSB repair in avian and human cells, respectively. Collectively, these data identify a role for the vWA domain of Ku80 and a molecular mechanism by which DNA ligase proficient complexes are assembled during NHEJ in mammalian cells, and reveal APLF to be a structural component of this critical DSB repair pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stuart L Rulten
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Zhihong Zeng
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | | | - Natasha Iles
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Katie Manley
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Antony Oliver
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Keith W Caldecott
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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114
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Couto CAM, Hsu DW, Teo R, Rakhimova A, Lempidaki S, Pears CJ, Lakin ND. Nonhomologous end-joining promotes resistance to DNA damage in the absence of an ADP-ribosyltransferase that signals DNA single strand breaks. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:3452-61. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.128769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation of proteins at DNA lesions by ADP-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) is an early response to DNA damage. The best defined role of ADP-ribosylation in the DNA damage response is in repair of single strand breaks (SSBs). Recently, we initiated a study of how ADP-ribosylation regulates DNA repair in Dictyostelium and found that whilst two ARTs (Adprt1b and Adprt2) are required for tolerance of cells to SSBs, a third ART (Adprt1a) promotes nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ). Here we report that disruption of adprt2 results in accumulation of DNA damage throughout the cell cycle following exposure to agents that induce base damage and DNA SSBs. Although ADP-ribosylation is evident in adprt2− cells exposed to MMS, disruption of adprt1a and adprt2 in combination abrogates this response and further sensitises cells to this agent, indicating that in the absence of Adprt2, Adprt1a signals MMS-induced DNA lesions to promote resistance of cells to DNA damage. As a consequence of defective signalling of SSBs by Adprt2, Adprt1a is required to assemble NHEJ factors in chromatin and disruption of the NHEJ pathway in combination with adprt2 increases sensitivity of cells to MMS. Taken together, these data indicate overlapping functions between different ARTs in signalling DNA damage and illustrate a critical requirement for NHEJ in maintaining cell viability in the absence of an effective SSB response.
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115
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Burgess RJ, Zhang Z. Histone chaperones in nucleosome assembly and human disease. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2013; 20:14-22. [PMID: 23288364 PMCID: PMC4004355 DOI: 10.1038/nsmb.2461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nucleosome assembly following DNA replication, DNA repair and gene transcription is critical for the maintenance of genome stability and epigenetic information. Nucleosomes are assembled by replication-coupled or replication-independent pathways with the aid of histone chaperone proteins. How these different nucleosome assembly pathways are regulated remains relatively unclear. Recent studies have provided insight into the mechanisms and the roles of histone chaperones in regulating nucleosome assembly. Alterations or mutations in factors involved in nucleosome assembly have also been implicated in cancer and other human diseases. This review highlights the recent progress and outlines future challenges in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Burgess
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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116
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Strande NT, Waters CA, Ramsden DA. Resolution of complex ends by Nonhomologous end joining - better to be lucky than good? Genome Integr 2012; 3:10. [PMID: 23276302 PMCID: PMC3547747 DOI: 10.1186/2041-9414-3-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The Nonhomologous end joining pathway is essential for efficient repair of chromosome double strand breaks. This pathway consequently plays a key role in cellular resistance to break-inducing exogenous agents, as well as in the developmentally-programmed recombinations that are required for adaptive immunity. Chromosome breaks often have complex or “dirty” end structures that can interfere with the critical ligation step in this pathway; we review here how Nonhomologous end joining resolves such breaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Tiffany Strande
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA.
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117
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Zaja R, Mikoč A, Barkauskaite E, Ahel I. Molecular Insights into Poly(ADP-ribose) Recognition and Processing. Biomolecules 2012; 3:1-17. [PMID: 24970154 PMCID: PMC4030884 DOI: 10.3390/biom3010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Revised: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational protein modification involved in the regulation of important cellular functions including DNA repair, transcription, mitosis and apoptosis. The amount of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PAR) in cells reflects the balance of synthesis, mediated by the PARP protein family, and degradation, which is catalyzed by a glycohydrolase, PARG. Many of the proteins mediating PAR metabolism possess specialised high affinity PAR-binding modules that allow the efficient sensing or processing of the PAR signal. The identification of four such PAR-binding modules and the characterization of a number of proteins utilising these elements during the last decade has provided important insights into how PAR regulates different cellular activities. The macrodomain represents a unique PAR-binding module which is, in some instances, known to possess enzymatic activity on ADP-ribose derivatives (in addition to PAR-binding). The most recently discovered example for this is the PARG protein, and several available PARG structures have provided an understanding into how the PARG macrodomain evolved into a major enzyme that maintains PAR homeostasis in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roko Zaja
- Cancer Research UK, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK.
| | - Andreja Mikoč
- Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, Zagreb 10000, Croatia.
| | - Eva Barkauskaite
- Cancer Research UK, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK.
| | - Ivan Ahel
- Cancer Research UK, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK.
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118
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Soria G, Polo SE, Almouzni G. Prime, repair, restore: the active role of chromatin in the DNA damage response. Mol Cell 2012; 46:722-34. [PMID: 22749398 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The view of DNA packaging into chromatin as a mere obstacle to DNA repair is evolving. In this review, we focus on histone variants and heterochromatin proteins as chromatin components involved in distinct levels of chromatin organization to integrate them as real players in the DNA damage response (DDR). Based on recent data, we highlight how some of these chromatin components play active roles in the DDR and contribute to the fine-tuning of damage signaling, DNA and chromatin repair. To take into account this integrated view, we revisit the existing access-repair-restore model and propose a new working model involving priming chromatin for repair and restoration as a concerted process. We discuss how this impacts on both genomic and epigenomic stability and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaston Soria
- Laboratory of Chromatin Dynamics, Institut Curie Section Recherche, 75248 Paris Cedex 5, France
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119
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Gospodinov A, Herceg Z. Shaping chromatin for repair. Mutat Res 2012; 752:45-60. [PMID: 23085398 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2012.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2012] [Revised: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
To counteract the adverse effects of various DNA lesions, cells have evolved an array of diverse repair pathways to restore DNA structure and to coordinate repair with cell cycle regulation. Chromatin changes are an integral part of the DNA damage response, particularly with regard to the types of repair that involve assembly of large multiprotein complexes such as those involved in double strand break (DSB) repair and nucleotide excision repair (NER). A number of phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, ubiquitylation and chromatin remodeling events modulate chromatin structure at the lesion site. These changes demarcate chromatin neighboring the lesion, afford accessibility and binding surfaces to repair factors and provide on-the-spot means to coordinate repair and damage signaling. Thus, the hierarchical assembly of repair factors at a double strand break is mostly due to their regulated interactions with posttranslational modifications of histones. A large number of chromatin remodelers are required at different stages of DSB repair and NER. Remodelers physically interact with proteins involved in repair processes, suggesting that chromatin remodeling is a requisite for repair factors to access the damaged site. Together, recent findings define the roles of histone post-translational modifications and chromatin remodeling in the DNA damage response and underscore possible differences in the requirements for these events in relation to the chromatin context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastas Gospodinov
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str. 21, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Zdenko Herceg
- Epigenetics Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008, Lyon, France.
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120
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Beneke S. Regulation of chromatin structure by poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. Front Genet 2012; 3:169. [PMID: 22969794 PMCID: PMC3432497 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction of DNA with proteins in the context of chromatin has to be tightly regulated to achieve so different tasks as packaging, transcription, replication and repair. The very rapid and transient post-translational modification of proteins by poly(ADP-ribose) has been shown to take part in all four. Originally identified as immediate cellular answer to a variety of genotoxic stresses, already early data indicated the ability of this highly charged nucleic acid-like polymer to modulate nucleosome structure, the basic unit of chromatin. At the same time the enzyme responsible for synthesizing poly(ADP-ribose), the zinc-finger protein poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1), was shown to control transcription initiation as basic factor TFIIC within the RNA-polymerase II machinery. Later research focused more on PARP-mediated regulation of DNA repair and cell death, but in the last few years, transcription as well as chromatin modulation has re-appeared on the scene. This review will discuss the impact of PARP1 on transcription and transcription factors, its implication in chromatin remodeling for DNA repair and probably also replication, and its role in controlling epigenetic events such as DNA methylation and the functionality of the insulator protein CCCTC-binding factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Beneke
- Institute of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
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121
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Thompson LH. Recognition, signaling, and repair of DNA double-strand breaks produced by ionizing radiation in mammalian cells: the molecular choreography. Mutat Res 2012; 751:158-246. [PMID: 22743550 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 06/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The faithful maintenance of chromosome continuity in human cells during DNA replication and repair is critical for preventing the conversion of normal diploid cells to an oncogenic state. The evolution of higher eukaryotic cells endowed them with a large genetic investment in the molecular machinery that ensures chromosome stability. In mammalian and other vertebrate cells, the elimination of double-strand breaks with minimal nucleotide sequence change involves the spatiotemporal orchestration of a seemingly endless number of proteins ranging in their action from the nucleotide level to nucleosome organization and chromosome architecture. DNA DSBs trigger a myriad of post-translational modifications that alter catalytic activities and the specificity of protein interactions: phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, ubiquitylation, and SUMOylation, followed by the reversal of these changes as repair is completed. "Superfluous" protein recruitment to damage sites, functional redundancy, and alternative pathways ensure that DSB repair is extremely efficient, both quantitatively and qualitatively. This review strives to integrate the information about the molecular mechanisms of DSB repair that has emerged over the last two decades with a focus on DSBs produced by the prototype agent ionizing radiation (IR). The exponential growth of molecular studies, heavily driven by RNA knockdown technology, now reveals an outline of how many key protein players in genome stability and cancer biology perform their interwoven tasks, e.g. ATM, ATR, DNA-PK, Chk1, Chk2, PARP1/2/3, 53BP1, BRCA1, BRCA2, BLM, RAD51, and the MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 complex. Thus, the nature of the intricate coordination of repair processes with cell cycle progression is becoming apparent. This review also links molecular abnormalities to cellular pathology as much a possible and provides a framework of temporal relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry H Thompson
- Biology & Biotechnology Division, L452, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, CA 94551-0808, United States.
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122
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Gibson BA, Kraus WL. New insights into the molecular and cellular functions of poly(ADP-ribose) and PARPs. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2012; 13:411-24. [PMID: 22713970 DOI: 10.1038/nrm3376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 960] [Impact Index Per Article: 73.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are enzymes that transfer ADP-ribose groups to target proteins and thereby affect various nuclear and cytoplasmic processes. The activity of PARP family members, such as PARP1 and PARP2, is tied to cellular signalling pathways, and through poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) they ultimately promote changes in gene expression, RNA and protein abundance, and the location and activity of proteins that mediate signalling responses. PARPs act in a complex response network that is driven by the cellular, molecular and chemical biology of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR). This PAR-dependent response network is crucial for a broad array of physiological and pathological responses and thus is a good target for chemical therapeutics for several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan A Gibson
- Signalling and Gene Regulation Laboratory, Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biology Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390-78511, USA
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123
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Luo X, Kraus WL. On PAR with PARP: cellular stress signaling through poly(ADP-ribose) and PARP-1. Genes Dev 2012; 26:417-32. [PMID: 22391446 DOI: 10.1101/gad.183509.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 586] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Cellular stress responses are mediated through a series of regulatory processes that occur at the genomic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels. These responses require a complex network of sensors and effectors from multiple signaling pathways, including the abundant and ubiquitous nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) polymerase-1 (PARP-1). PARP-1 functions at the center of cellular stress responses, where it processes diverse signals and, in response, directs cells to specific fates (e.g., DNA repair vs. cell death) based on the type and strength of the stress stimulus. Many of PARP-1's functions in stress response pathways are mediated by its regulated synthesis of PAR, a negatively charged polymer, using NAD(+) as a donor of ADP-ribose units. Thus, PARP-1's functions are intimately tied to nuclear NAD(+) metabolism and the broader metabolic profile of the cell. Recent studies in cell and animal models have highlighted the roles of PARP-1 and PAR in the response to a wide variety of extrinsic and intrinsic stress signals, including those initiated by oxidative, nitrosative, genotoxic, oncogenic, thermal, inflammatory, and metabolic stresses. These responses underlie pathological conditions, including cancer, inflammation-related diseases, and metabolic dysregulation. The development of PARP inhibitors is being pursued as a therapeutic approach to these conditions. In this review, we highlight the newest findings about PARP-1's role in stress responses in the context of the historical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Luo
- Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biology Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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124
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De Vos M, Schreiber V, Dantzer F. The diverse roles and clinical relevance of PARPs in DNA damage repair: current state of the art. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:137-46. [PMID: 22469522 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) catalyzed poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is one of the earliest post-translational modification of proteins detectable at sites of DNA strand interruptions. The considerable recent progress in the science of PARP in the last decade and the discovery of a PARP superfamily (17 members) has introduced this modification as a key mechanism regulating a wide variety of cellular processes including among others transcription, regulation of chromatin dynamics, telomere homeostasis, differentiation and cell death. However, the most extensive studied and probably the best characterized role is in DNA repair where it plays pivotal roles in the processing and resolution of the damaged DNA. Although much of the focus has been on PARP1 in DNA repair, recent advances highlight the emergence of other DNA-dependent PARPs (i.e. PARP2, PARP3 and possibly Tankyrase) in this process. Here we will summarize the recent insights into the molecular functions of these PARPs in different DNA repair pathways in which they emerge as specific actors. Furthermore, the DNA repair functions of PARP1 have stimulated another area of intense research in the field with the development of potent and selective PARP1 inhibitors to promote genome instability and cell death in tumor cells. Their current use in clinical trials have demonstrated potentiation of antitumoral drugs and cytotoxicity in repair deficient tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike De Vos
- UMR7242-CNRS-Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Recherche de l'Ecole de Biotechnologie de Strasbourg, Ecole Supérieure de Biotechnologie de Strasbourg, bld. S. Brant, BP10413, 67412 Illkirch, France
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125
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Luijsterburg MS, van Attikum H. Close encounters of the RNF8th kind: when chromatin meets DNA repair. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2012; 24:439-47. [PMID: 22464734 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Revised: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 03/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cells counteract the adverse effects of chromosome breakage by activating the DNA damage response (DDR), which entails a coordinated series of events that regulate cell cycle progression and repair of DNA lesions. The packaging of genomic DNA into condensed, often inaccessible chromatin severely complicates efficient DNA damage repair in living cells. Recent studies implicate a large number of chromatin-modifying enzymes in the DDR, suggesting a stepwise model in which chromatin is continually reconfigured to accommodate the association and action of repair factors during the different stages of the DDR. Emerging evidence suggests that the histone ubiquitin ligases RNF8/RNF168 act in concert with ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes to orchestrate the signalling and repair of DNA lesions in specific chromatin topologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn S Luijsterburg
- Department of Toxicogenetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Einthovenweg 20, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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126
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Lans H, Marteijn JA, Vermeulen W. ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling in the DNA-damage response. Epigenetics Chromatin 2012; 5:4. [PMID: 22289628 PMCID: PMC3275488 DOI: 10.1186/1756-8935-5-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The integrity of DNA is continuously challenged by metabolism-derived and environmental genotoxic agents that cause a variety of DNA lesions, including base alterations and breaks. DNA damage interferes with vital processes such as transcription and replication, and if not repaired properly, can ultimately lead to premature aging and cancer. Multiple DNA pathways signaling for DNA repair and DNA damage collectively safeguard the integrity of DNA. Chromatin plays a pivotal role in regulating DNA-associated processes, and is itself subject to regulation by the DNA-damage response. Chromatin influences access to DNA, and often serves as a docking or signaling site for repair and signaling proteins. Its structure can be adapted by post-translational histone modifications and nucleosome remodeling, catalyzed by the activity of ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes. In recent years, accumulating evidence has suggested that ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes play important, although poorly characterized, roles in facilitating the effectiveness of the DNA-damage response. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the involvement of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling in three major DNA repair pathways: nucleotide excision repair, homologous recombination, and non-homologous end-joining. This shows that a surprisingly large number of different remodeling complexes display pleiotropic functions during different stages of the DNA-damage response. Moreover, several complexes seem to have multiple functions, and are implicated in various mechanistically distinct repair pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Lans
- Department of Genetics, Medical Genetics Center, Erasmus MC, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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127
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Deem AK, Li X, Tyler JK. Epigenetic regulation of genomic integrity. Chromosoma 2012; 121:131-51. [PMID: 22249206 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-011-0358-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Inefficient and inaccurate repair of DNA damage is the principal cause of DNA mutations, chromosomal aberrations, and carcinogenesis. Numerous multiple-step DNA repair pathways exist whose deployment depends on the nature of the DNA lesion. Common to all eukaryotic DNA repair pathways is the need to unravel the compacted chromatin structure to facilitate access of the repair machinery to the DNA and restoration of the original chromatin state afterward. Accordingly, our cells utilize a plethora of coordinated mechanisms to locally open up the chromatin structure to reveal the underlying DNA sequence and to orchestrate the efficient and accurate repair of DNA lesions. Here we review changes to the chromatin structure that are intrinsic to the DNA damage response and the available mechanistic insight into how these chromatin changes facilitate distinct stages of the DNA damage repair pathways to maintain genomic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela K Deem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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128
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Lukas J, Lukas C, Bartek J. More than just a focus: The chromatin response to DNA damage and its role in genome integrity maintenance. Nat Cell Biol 2011; 13:1161-9. [PMID: 21968989 DOI: 10.1038/ncb2344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 504] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Following the discovery in 1998 of γ-H2AX, the first histone modification induced by DNA damage, interest in the changes to chromatin induced by DNA damage has exploded, and a vast amount of information has been generated. However, there has been a discrepancy between our rapidly advancing knowledge of how chromatin responds to DNA damage and the understanding of why cells mobilize large segments of chromatin to protect the genome against destabilizing effects posed by tiny DNA lesions. Recent research has provided insights into these issues and suggests that chromatin responses induced by DNA damage are not simply the accumulation of 'nuclear foci' but are mechanisms required to guard genome integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiri Lukas
- Centre for Genotoxic Stress Research, Institute of Cancer Biology, Danish Cancer Society, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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129
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Luijsterburg MS, van Attikum H. Chromatin and the DNA damage response: the cancer connection. Mol Oncol 2011; 5:349-67. [PMID: 21782533 PMCID: PMC5528312 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The integrity of the human genome is constantly threatened by genotoxic agents that cause DNA damage. Inefficient or inaccurate repair of DNA lesions triggers genome instability and can lead to cancer development or even cell death. Cells counteract the adverse effects of DNA lesions by activating the DNA damage response (DDR), which entails a coordinated series of events that regulates cell cycle progression and repair of DNA lesions. Efficient DNA repair in living cells is complicated by the packaging of genomic DNA into a condensed, often inaccessible structure called chromatin. Cells utilize post-translational histone modifications and ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling to modulate chromatin structure and increase the accessibility of the repair machinery to lesions embedded in chromatin. Here we review and discuss our current knowledge and recent advances on DNA damage-induced chromatin changes and their implications for the mammalian DNA damage response, genome stability and carcinogenesis. Exploiting our improving understanding of how modulators of chromatin structure orchestrate the DDR may provide new avenues to improve cancer management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn S Luijsterburg
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, von Eulers väg 3, S-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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130
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Rulten SL, Fisher AEO, Robert I, Zuma MC, Rouleau M, Ju L, Poirier G, Reina-San-Martin B, Caldecott KW. PARP-3 and APLF function together to accelerate nonhomologous end-joining. Mol Cell 2011; 41:33-45. [PMID: 21211721 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2010.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PARP-3 is a member of the ADP-ribosyl transferase superfamily of unknown function. We show that PARP-3 is stimulated by DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in vitro and functions in the same pathway as the poly (ADP-ribose)-binding protein APLF to accelerate chromosomal DNA DSB repair. We implicate PARP-3 in the accumulation of APLF at DSBs and demonstrate that APLF promotes the retention of XRCC4/DNA ligase IV complex in chromatin, suggesting that PARP-3 and APLF accelerate DNA ligation during nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ). Consistent with this, we show that class switch recombination in Aplf(-/-) B cells is biased toward microhomology-mediated end-joining, a pathway that operates in the absence of XRCC4/DNA ligase IV, and that the requirement for PARP-3 and APLF for NHEJ is circumvented by overexpression of XRCC4/DNA ligase IV. These data identify molecular roles for PARP-3 and APLF in chromosomal DNA double-strand break repair reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart L Rulten
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RQ, UK
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